Attachment 16 marker

Question 1

1. WITH REFERENCE TO RECIPROCITY AND INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY DISCUSS INFANT CAREGIVER INTERACTIONS

Answer 1

• Interactions between caregivers and infants provide an insight into the type and nature of attachment
• RECIPROCITY is when an infant responds to the actions of another by turn taking
• The actions of the primary caregiver elicit a response from the infant.
  The interaction between both individuals flows back and forth.
• Meltzoff & Moore (1977) conducted an observational study whereby an adult displayed facial expressions or a hand gesture.
• Following the display from the model, a dummy was removed from the child’s mouth and standing their expressions filmed.
• There was an association between the infants’ behaviour and that of the adult model, showing reciprocity.

Question 2

2. WITH REFERENCE TO RECIPROCITY AND INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY DISCUSS INFANT CAREGIVER INTERACTIONS

• EXPLAIN INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY

Answer 2

• Interactional synchrony takes place when infants mirror the actions or emotions of another person, e.g. their facial expressions.
• The child will move their body, or carry out the same act as their caregiver simultaneously, and the two are said to be synchronised.
• This serves to sustain communication between the two caregiver and infant.

Question 3

3. WITH REFERENCE TO RECIPROCITY AND INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY DISCUSS INFANT CAREGIVER INTERACTIONS

• COINCIDENTAL/ CHANCE

Answer 3

• One limitation of research into caregiver-infant interactions is the questionable reliability of testing children.
• This is because infants move their mouths and wave their arms constantly, which is an issue for researchers investigating intentional behaviour.
• Therefore, we cannot be certain that the infants were engaging in interactional synchrony or reciprocity, as some of the behaviour may have occurred by chance.
• This questions the validity of research in relation to reciprocity and interactional synchrony and suggests that psychologists should cautious when interpreting the findings from research in this area.

Question 4

4. WITH REFERENCE TO RECIPROCITY AND INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY DISCUSS INFANT CAREGIVER INTERACTIONS
   ( observer bias)

Answer 4

• There methodological problems with studying interactional synchrony using observational methods.
• There is the possibility of observer bias where the researchers consciously or unconsciously interpret behaviour to support their findings.
• To address this problem, more than one observer should be used to examine the inter-observer reliability of the observations.
• Recent research by Koepke et al (1983) failed to replicate findings of Meltzoff& Moore which suggests that their results of research examining infant-caregiver interactions unreliable.

Question 5

5. WITH REFERENCE TO RECIPROCITY AND INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY DISCUSS INFANT CAREGIVER INTERACTIONS

Isabella et al

Answer 5

• A further criticism of Meltzoff& Moore’s research is that recent research found that only securely attached infants engage in interactional synchrony.
• Isabella et al. (1989) found that the more securely attached the infant, the greater the level of interactional synchrony.
• This suggests that not all children engage in interactional synchrony and that Meltzoff & Moore’s original findings may have overlooked individual differences which could be a mediating factor.

Question 6

6. WITH REFERENCE TO RECIPROCITY AND INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY DISCUSS INFANT CAREGIVER INTERACTIONS (innate)

Answer 6

• Psychologists suggest that caregiver-infant interactions, such as reciprocity, are present from birth and therefore are the product of nature in order to help infants form and maintain an attachment.
• However, such innate behaviours do not act in isolation and interact with the environment (caregivers) to prompt a response (e.g. attention).
• Consequently, researchers should consider the interaction of innate infant behaviours with the environment (e.g, their caregivers) to fully appreciate and understand the complex nature of caregiver- infant interactions.

Question 7

1. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE THE ROLE OF THE FATHER IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATTACHMENT

Answer 7

• Traditionally, the role of the father in attachment would have been limited, as they would go to work to provide resources for the family whilst the mothers took care of the children.
• Although recently the role of the father has changed significantly. However, psychologists disagree over the exact role of the father.
• Some researchers claim that men are simply not equipped to form an attachment.
• Such psychologists point to biological evidence which suggests that the hormone oestrogen underlies caring behaviour in women and the lack of oestrogen in men is why they are unable to form a close attachment.
• Other researchers argue that fathers do not take on a caregiver role and, in fact, provide a different role, as a playmate.
• Finally, some researchers argue that fathers can demonstrate sensitive responsiveness and react to the needs of their children and thus can form a strong emotional tie or bond

Question 8

2. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE THE ROLE OF THE FATHER IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATTACHMENT

(Father is a playmate? Geiger?)

Answer 8

• There is research evidence that provides support for the role of the father as a ‘playmate’.
• Research by Geiger (1996) found that fathers’ play interactions were more exciting in comparison to mothers’.
• However, the mothers’ play interactions were more affectionate and nurturing.
• This suggests that the role of the father is, in fact, as a playmate and not as a sensitive parent who responds to the needs of their children.
• These results also confirm that the mother takes on more of a nurturing role.

Question 9

3. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE THE ROLE OF THE FATHER IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATTACHMENT

(Hardy 1999?)

Answer 9

• Furthermore, research evidence also suggests that fathers do not provide a sensitive and nurturing attachment.
• Hardy (1999) found that fathers were less able to detect low levels of infant distress, in comparison to mothers.
• These results appear to support the biological explanations highlighted above; the lack of oestrogen in men means that fathers are not biologically equipped to form close attachments with their children.
• This suggests that the role of the father is, to some extent, biologically determined and that a father’s role is restricted because of their biological makeup.
• This provides further evidence that fathers are not able to provide a sensitive and nurturing type of attachment, as they are unable to detect stress in their children.

Question 10

4. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE THE ROLE OF THE FATHER IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATTACHMENT

(Belsky et al)

Answer 10

• However, research suggests that fathers are able to form secure attachments with their children if they are in an intimate or close marriage.
• Belsky et al. (2009) found that males who reported higher levels of marital intimacy also displayed a secure father-infant attachment, whereas males with lower levels of marital intimacy displayed insecure father-infant attachments.
• This suggests that males can form secure attachments with their children; however, the strength of the attachment depends on the father and mother relationship.
• Therefore, while fathers may be biologically determined to form a different relationship with their children, this relationship is mediated by their environment (the intimacy of their marriage) suggesting that while a father’s role may be determined, it is only determined to an extent and therefore a softer view of determinism is more appropriate.

Question 11

1. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE ANIMAL STUDIES OF ATTACHMENT

(lorenz experiment?)

Answer 11

• Lorenz conducted an experiment where he divided goose eggs into two batches.
• One batch was hatched naturally by the mother and the second batch were placed in an incubator, that the goslings saw after hatching.

Question 12

2. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE ANIMAL STUDIES OF ATTACHMENT

(Lorenz conclusion)

Answer 12

• Lorenz found that straight after birth the naturally hatched goslings followed the mother goose, whereas the incubator- hours after hatching and the relationship persisted over time with Lorenz maling sure he was the first large moving object Lorenz found that straight after birth the naturally hatched hatched goslings followed Lorenz.
• Lorenz noted that this imprinting only occurred within a critical period of 4-25 and proved to be irreversible.

Question 13

3. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE ANIMAL STUDIES OF ATTACHMENT

(generalisation)

Answer 13

• Since Lorenz only studied animals, we cannot generalise the would behave in the same way.
• The attachment formation in results to humans as we are unable to conclude that they mammals appears to be very different to that of bird species Human parents, specifically mothers, show more emotional reactions to their offspring and can form attachments beyond the first few hours after birth.
• So, whilst some of Lorenz’s findings have influenced our understanding of development and attachment formation, caution must be applied when drawing wider conclusions about the results.

Question 14

4. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE ANIMAL STUDIES OF ATTACHMENT

(Guitton et al)

Answer 14

• Later research has cast doubt on some of the conclusions which Lorenz drew.
• For example, Guiton et al. (1966) found that chickens would imprint on yellow washing up gloves if that was the largest moving object they first saw after birth.
• Later, they would then try to mate with that object in adulthood.
• However, they disagreed with Lorenz’s predictions that this relationship persists and is irreversible.
• This is because with experience, the chickens could eventually learn to prefer mating with other chickens instead, suggesting that the effects of imprinting may not be as permanent as initially thought.

Question 15

5. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE ANIMAL STUDIES OF ATTACHMENT

(Harlow? Baby monkey?)

Answer 15

• Harlow investigated attachment behaviour in rhesus wire mother’ and a second soft ‘towelling mother’.
• The was recorded. Findings showed that the baby monkeys monkeys.
• He constructed two surrogate mothers: one harsh amount of time that the baby monkey spent with each mother preferred to make contact with the soft ‘towelling mother’ and the monkeys would even stretch across to the wire mother’ for food whilst still clinging onto the ‘towelling mother’.
• Harlow concluded that baby rhesus monkeys have an innate drive to seek contact comfort suggesting that attachment with parents is formed through an emotional need for security.

Question 16

6. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE ANIMAL STUDIES OF ATTACHMENT

(HOWE ET AL)

Answer 16

• The results from Harlow’s study are of large practical value since they provide insight into attachment formation which has important real-world applications that can be useful in a range of practical situations.
• For example, Howe (1998) reports that the knowledge gained from Harlow’s research has helped social workers to understand risk factors in neglect and abuse cases with human children who can then serve to prevent it occurring or, at the very least, recognise when to intervene.
• In addition, there are practical applications which are used in the care of captive wild monkeys in zoos or breeding programmes to ensure that they have have adequate attachment figures as part of their care.

Question 17

7. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE ANIMAL STUDIES OF ATTACHMENT

(Harlow ETHICS?)

Answer 17

• Harlow was criticised heavily for the ethics of his research on animals.
• The baby rhesus monkeys suffered greatly in terms of emotional separation from their biological mother at such an early age due to the procedure Harlow used.
• If the species of primates are considered sufficiently human-like to generalise the results, then it stands to reason that the effects of psychological harm that they will have endured are similar to that of a human baby.
• There is, however, the question of whether the insight obtained was sufficiently important to psychologists’ understanding of attachment that Harlow was justified in his approach.

Question 18

1. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE BOWLBY’S EXPLANATION OF ATTACHMENT

( innate tendency )

Answer 18

• Bowlby argued that infants are born with an innate tendency to form attachments with their parents to increase chances of survival.

Question 19

2. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE BOWLBY’S EXPLANATION OF ATTACHMENT

(Biological tendency to care?)

Answer 19

• According to Bowlby, infants possess inborn social releasers, which unlock a biological tendency in adults to care for them.
• Examples include ‘baby face’ features or smiling and cooing.
• Babies must form an attachment during the critical period which is between three and six months of age.
• However which unlock a biological tendency in adults to care for them.
• Bowlby later acknowledged that infants could form an attachment after this period (up to three years of age): however, he maintained that the successful formation of an attachment would be increasingly difficult after this initial period. Bowlby said that if an attachment didn’t form during this time frame then the child would be damaged for life - socially, emotionally, intellectually and physically

Question 20

3. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE BOWLBY’S EXPLANATION OF ATTACHMENT

(Monotropic? Internal model?)

Answer 20

• Furthermore, infants form one special attachment which Bowlby called monotropy.
• Through the monotropic attachment the infant forms an internal working model which is a mental template for future relationship expectations.
• If there’s a healthy attachment with the caregiver then the infant will develop strong relationships later in life.
• However if the child has a negative relationship with their caregiver they will have difficult social and romantic relationships.

Question 21

4. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE BOWLBY’S EXPLANATION OF ATTACHMENT

(Hazen and shaver?)

Answer 21

• A strength of Bowlby’s theory comes from research by Hazan and Shaver (1987).
• They used a self-report questionnaire called The Love Quiz’ to assess the internal working model.
• They found a positive correlation between early attachment types and later adult relationships.
• This supports Bowlby’s idea of an internal working model and suggests that our early childhood experiences do affect our later adult relationships.
• Sroufe et al. (2005) also provide evidence for this in their Minnesota parent-child study, showing the outcome of early attachment type being carried forward and projected onto expectations of subsequent relationships.

Question 22

5. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE BOWLBY’S EXPLANATION OF ATTACHMENT

(Innate mechanism to survive?)

Answer 22

• Bowlby’s theory suggests that attachments are an innate mechanism to aid survival, therefore supporting a nature adult relationships are, to some extent, determined by an nurture is critical when considering the effects of early view.
• His notion of an internal working model suggests that innate mechanism shaped by our nurturing early relationship experiences.
• This suggests that an interaction of nature and attachments and the internal working model, and that psychologists should consider both biological and environmental factors when examining attachment.

Question 23

6. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE BOWLBY’S EXPLANATION OF ATTACHMENT

(mixed evidence for the importance of monotropy)

Answer 23

• There is mixed evidence for the importance of monotropy Schaffer and Emmerson (1964) refute the idea that infants must form one special attachment to their caregiver which supersedes all others and provides the foundation for subsequent, multiple attachments.
• They did recognise that some infants do, in fact, follow this pattern but that there are others who can form multiple attachments with different caregivers at the same time (e.g. the mother and father simultaneously).
• This goes against Bowlby’s notion of ‘monotropy’ which forms a central part of his theory of attachment.

Question 24

7. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE BOWLBY’S EXPLANATION OF ATTACHMENT

(Alternative explanation?)

Answer 24

• There is an alternative explanation for attachment.
• Kagan (1984) proposed the temperament hypothesis which suggests that a child’s genetically inherited personality traits (temperament) have a role to play in forming an attachment with a caregiver.
• It is thought that infants have differing temperaments because of their biological makeup which means that some are more sociable and ‘easy’ and others are more anxious and ‘difficult’ babies.
• It is argued that Bowlby ignored the role of temperament, preferring instead to focus on the early childhood experiences and quality of attachment, which was an oversight since personality differences in the child can influence whether they become securely or insecurely attached.

Question 25

1. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE LEARNING THEORY AS AN EXPLANATION OF ATTACHMENT

Answer 25

• Learning theory explains how infants learn to become attached through the processes of classical or operant conditioning.
• It is sometimes called the ‘cupboard love’ theory because of the focus on food.

Question 26

2. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE LEARNING THEORY AS AN EXPLANATION OF ATTACHMENT

(Classical conditioning?)

Answer 26

• Classical conditioning is learning by association.
  Before conditioning, food is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) which produces an unconditioned response (UCR) of pleasure as a relief from hunger.
• The caregiver is a neutral stimulus (NS), who produces no conditioned response.
• During conditioning, the child associates the caregiver (NS) who feeds them with the food (UCS).
• Through repeated pairing, the caregiver becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) who is associated with the pleasure from feeding.
• This results in the caregiver eliciting a conditioned response from the child and the formation of an attachment.

Question 27

3. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE LEARNING THEORY AS AN EXPLANATION OF ATTACHMENT

(Operant conditioning?)

Answer 27

• Operant conditioning proposes that when an infant feels hunger it is motivated to reduce the unpleasant feelings so cries to receive comfort.
• When the caregiver provides food, a feeling of pleasure is produced which is rewarding.
• Attachment will occur because the infant will seek the caregiver who can supply the reward.

Question 28

4. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE LEARNING THEORY AS AN EXPLANATION OF ATTACHMENT

(Undermined by Harlow?)

Answer 28

• Learning theory is undermined by research from Harlow.
• He found that baby rhesus monkeys spent more time with a soft towelling monkey which provided no food, in comparison to a wire monkey that provided food.
  This shows that baby monkeys do not form attachments based on presence of food alone and prefer contact comfort.
• These findings go against the learning theory explanation of attachment and suggest alternative processes may have been ignored.
• This counter- argument is further supported by Schaffer & Emmerson’s research which demonstrated that infants formed attachments to their mothers despite often being fed by other carers.

Question 29

5. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE LEARNING THEORY AS AN EXPLANATION OF ATTACHMENT

(Animal?)

Answer 29

• There are methodological issues with the research evidence for learning theory.
• Much of the supporting research, for example Pavlov’s research on dogs and Skinner’s research with rats and pigeons, is criticised for its over-reliance on animals.
• This is an issue because psychologists argue that behaviourist explanations provide an oversimplified account of attachment formation, which is in fact a complex emotional bond between a human infant and their caregiver.
• As a result, the learning theory explanation may lack validity since it is difficult to generalise animal findings to humans with confidence that they would behave in the same way.

Question 30

6. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE LEARNING THEORY AS AN EXPLANATION OF ATTACHMENT

(Alternative? Evolutionary?)

Answer 30

• There is an alternative to the learning theory to explain human attachment, as proposed by Bowlby.
• He believed that infants have an innate readiness during the critical period to form an attachment to their caregiver to protect them from harm whilst they are young and vulnerable.
• The evolutionary perspective not only explains how an attachment forms, but also why - to enhance survival.
• It is accepted that Bowlby’s theory provides a more comprehensive explanation of attachment rather than reducing a complex behaviour to a simple stimulus-response association.

Question 31

7. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE LEARNING THEORY AS AN EXPLANATION OF ATTACHMENT

(Nurture based views?)

Answer 31

• The learning theory explanation suggests that attachments are the result of learning which therefore supports a nurture- based view of behaviour.
• Consequently, such theories are reductionist (environmental) as they reduce a complex behaviour, the formation of an attachment between infants and their caregivers, to a simple stimulus-response association.
• Many psychologists would argue that human attachments are far more complex and learning explanations provide an overly simplified account of human attachment.

Question 32

1. DISCUSS THE STRANGE SITUATION AS A WAY OF ASSESSING TYPES OF ATTACHMENT

Answer 32

• Ainsworth devised a controlled observation called the strange situation to assess types of attachment in 9-18 month old infants
• The strange situation involves placing a child and their mother in a novel environment of mild stress whereby they would be observed and videoed through a one way mirror during a series of eight different situations

Question 33

2. DISCUSS THE STRANGE SITUATION AS A WAY OF ASSESSING TYPES OF ATTACHMENT

(Purpose?)

Answer 33

• The purpose of the Strange Situation is to measure four key explores the environment and whether they use the mother as a safe base;
• separation anxiety - how the child responds behaviours, including: exploration behaviours - how the child to/behaves when the mother leaves the room;
• stranger anxiety - how the child responds in the presence of a stranger;
• and reunion behaviours- how the child acts when reunited with their mother

Question 34

3. DISCUSS THE STRANGE SITUATION AS A WAY OF ASSESSING TYPES OF ATTACHMENT

(3 types of attachments classification?)

Answer 34

• Depending on how the child responds in the Strange Situation would lead to one of three attachment classifications:
• secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant.]
• In her original experiment, Ainsworth found the following distribution of attachment types :
• securely attached - 66 % , insecure- avoidant - 22 % , and insecure - resistant - 12 %

Question 35

4. DISCUSS THE STRANGE SITUATION AS A WAY OF ASSESSING TYPES OF ATTACHMENT

(Demand characteristics?)

Answer 35

• A methodological weakness of Ainsworth’s Strange Situation is the type of observation she used, which was an overt observation.
• The parents in Ainsworth’s study knew they were being observed through the one-way mirror and therefore may have displayed demand characteristics.
• This meant that the mothers may have been overly affectionate towards their children as they believed this is the behaviour that the scenario demanded of them.
• In turn, this could have altered the children’s behaviour and therefore lowers the internal validity of the experiment making the Strange Situation a less valid method of assessing attachment.

Question 36

5. DISCUSS THE STRANGE SITUATION AS A WAY OF ASSESSING TYPES OF ATTACHMENT

( cultural bias?)

Answer 36

• Furthermore, Ainsworth’s Strange Situation demonstrates a culture bias.
• Her theory and methods were based on Western ideals in relation to infant behaviour, categorising a higher proportion of children from other cultures as insecure- avoidant (e.g. Japan) or insecure-resistant (e.g. Germany) Consequently, the Strange Situation may not be a valid method of assessing attachment in other, non-American cultures.

Question 37

6. DISCUSS THE STRANGE SITUATION AS A WAY OF ASSESSING TYPES OF ATTACHMENT

(High reliability?)

Answer 37

• However, the Strange Situation method of assessing attachment type is said to have high reliability.
• The observations took place under strict and controlled methods (including video recording) using predetermined behavioural categories.
• Since Ainsworth has several observers watching and coding the same infant behaviours, agreement on attachment classifications could be ensured.
• Ainsworth et al. ( 1978 ) found 94 % agreement between observers and when inter-observer/inter-rater reliability is assumed to a high degree the findings are considered more meaningful.

Question 38

7. DISCUSS THE STRANGE SITUATION AS A WAY OF ASSESSING TYPES OF ATTACHMENT

(Incomplete?/ Main + Solomon?)

Answer 38

• Finally, there is the possibility that Ainsworth’s classification system of attachment types is incomplete.
• Main & Solomon (1986) conducted subsequent research whereby they analysed several hundred Strange Situation episodes via videotape and suggested that Ainsworth overlooked a fourth type.
• It was noted that some infants showed inconsistent patterns of behaviour which they termed Type D; insecure- disorganised.
• Further support for this claim comes from a meta-analysis of studies from the US conducted by van Ijzendoorn et al . ( 1999 ) which found that 15 % of infants were, in fact, classified as Type D, suggesting that Ainsworth’s original assessment of attachment is unable to fully explain all of the different types of attachments in children

Question 39

1. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE RESEARCH INTO CULTURAL VARIATIONS IN ATTACHMENT

(Van ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg?)

Answer 39

• van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) conducted a meta analysis of 32 studies from eight different countries that had used Ainsworth’s Strange Situation.
• In total, the results of over 1,990 infants were included in the analysis.
• Their research produced several key findings in relation to the distribution of attachment in different countries with secure cultures examined.
• Japan and Israel (collectivist cultures) showed higher levels of insecure-resistant attachment whereas Germany (individualistic culture) showed higher attachment being the most common type of attachment in all levels of insecure-avoidant attachment.

Question 40

2. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE RESEARCH INTO CULTURAL VARIATIONS IN ATTACHMENT

(Tronick et al?)

Answer 40

• Tronick et al 1992 studied the Efe tribe from Zaire who live in extended family groups
• The infants are looked after and breastfed by different women within the social group but infants sleep with their own mothers at night
• Although the childrearing practices differ from Western norms, the infants still showed a preference for a primary attachment figure at six months old echoing the notion that secure attachment is the most common globally.

Question 41

3. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE RESEARCH INTO CULTURAL VARIATIONS IN ATTACHMEN

(Limit of Van ijzendoorn + Kroonenberg)

Answer 41

• A criticism of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research is that they may have been comparing countries and not in fact cultures
• E.g. they compared GB with Israel in their meta analysis
• Within each country there may be many different subcultures each with their own unique ways of rearing children
• Interestingly the researchers noted that variance within countries was far greater than between countries
• It therefore stands to reason that they did in fact collect data on subcultures within the countries they investigated rather than the whole nation

Question 42

4. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE RESEARCH INTO CULTURAL VARIATIONS IN ATTACHMENT

(Baised?)

Answer 42

• Additionally the sample used in their investigation was biased with 27/32 of the studies in their meta analysis carried out in individualistic cultures
• Therefore their results are biased towards individualistic norms and values so we cannot accurately generalize the results to collectivist cultures, lowering the population validity of the findings

Question 43

5. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE RESEARCH INTO CULTURAL VARIATIONS IN ATTACHMENT

(Van ijzendoorn?)

Answer 43

• Furthermore, van Ijzendoorns research futher highlights the culture bias demonstrated in Ainsworth’s Strange situation, by reporting significant differences in the distribution of attachment types (secure, insecure avoidant and insecure resistant) in different cultures.
• For example, Germany has the highest rate of insecure avoidant attachment which may be the result of different childrearing practices and not a more insecure’ population.
• In Germany there is a general desire to keep some interpersonal distance between parents and infants; therefore, parents would generally discourage proximity-seeking behaviours within the Strange Situation which might bias the results of attachment research in Germany which therefore incorrectly categorise children as ‘insecure’.
• This suggests that the meta-analysis research investigating cultural variations should be treated with caution as the underlying methodology of the studies (the Strange Situation) suffers from a significant culture bias.
• Using a methodology of assessment beyond the sample for which it was designed is referred to as an imposed etic.
• This matters because attachment behaviours mean different things for different cultures and so the results may not be valid when used with samples from non-western cultures

Question 44

1. PSYCHOLOGISTS HAVE STUDIED CHILDREN WHO HAVE LIVED IN INSTITUTIONS SUCH AS ORPHANAGES. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE RESEARCH INTO THE EFFECTS OF INSTITUTIONALISATION

(Rutter and Songua- Barke?)

Answer 44

• Rutter and Songua-Barke conducted a longitudinal study of 165 children who had spent their early years in a Romanian orphanage.
• 111 of these children were adopted before two years old, and the others were adopted by four years old.
• They were compared to a control group of 52 British children
• The social, cognitive and physical development of all infants was examined at regular intervals

Question 45

2. PSYCHOLOGISTS HAVE STUDIED CHILDREN WHO HAVE LIVED IN INSTITUTIONS SUCH AS ORPHANAGES. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE RESEARCH INTO THE EFFECTS OF INSTITUTIONALISATION

(Before adoption?)

Answer 45

• Before adoption, the Romanian orphans showed delayed development and were physically smaller with many classified as ‘mentally retarded’.
• Almost all the Romanian orphans who were adopted before the age of six months caught up on these measures of development, when compared to the British control group.
• The Romanian children who were adopted after six months continued to show significant deficits in all areas of development; they were also more likely to experience difficulties with peer relationships and often had disinhibited attachments

Question 46

3. PSYCHOLOGISTS HAVE STUDIED CHILDREN WHO HAVE LIVED IN INSTITUTIONS SUCH AS ORPHANAGES. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE RESEARCH INTO THE EFFECTS OF INSTITUTIONALISATION

(Strength of Rutter?)

Answer 46

• One strength of Rutter and Songua-Barke’s research findings is their real-world application to social services.
• Their study helped change the way that children are looked after especially when it comes to the adoption process.
• Historically, mothers were encouraged to keep their babies for a substantial period by which time the critical period for attachment formation may have passed.
• Nowadays, infants are adopted as early as one-week old and Singer et al. (1985) states that children are as securely attached to their adoptive mothers as biologically related families.
• This demonstrates the benefit of institutionalisation research to help improve the lives of children.

Question 47

4. PSYCHOLOGISTS HAVE STUDIED CHILDREN WHO HAVE LIVED IN INSTITUTIONS SUCH AS ORPHANAGES. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE RESEARCH INTO THE EFFECTS OF INSTITUTIONALISATION

(Longitudinal?)

Answer 47

• Another strength of Rutter and Songua-Barke’s research is that their research was longitudinal.
• Their research took place over many years allowing them to assess both the short-term and long-term effects of institutionalisation and subsequent benefits from adoption.
• Therefore, the results of their research appear to be a valid representation of the effects of being placed in institutional care as well as portraying the results of receiving quality follow-on emotional caregiving in a timely manner

Question 48

5. PSYCHOLOGISTS HAVE STUDIED CHILDREN WHO HAVE LIVED IN INSTITUTIONS SUCH AS ORPHANAGES. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE RESEARCH INTO THE EFFECTS OF INSTITUTIONALISATION

(Criticism = deprivation?)

Answer 48

• A criticism of Romanian orphan research is that deprivation is only one factor in development.
• The orphans experienced very little or no mental stimulation and were often malnourished. This suggests that there are multiple risk factors involved in ascertaining the effects of institutional care.
• Furthermore, Romanian orphan studies suggest that an infant’s life chances are determined by their early experiences.
• However, not all infants in institutional care experience the same negative effects which highlights the importance of an idiographic approach within the research.
• Consequently, it is difficult to interpret the results of longitudinal studies as the sole effect of deprivation, as there are many different influences that affected these children, such as living in poverty, which are not fully considered in such studies.

Question 49

1. DISCUSS BOWLBY’S THEORY OF MATERNAL DEPRIVATION

Answer 49

• Maternal deprivation, which is the prolonged loss of emotional care from the mother figure, can have serious long term consequences.
• Bowlby believed that ongoing maternal deprivation would have negative effects on a child in terms of their emotional development, leading to possible mental health problems or maladjustment.

Question 50

2. DISCUSS BOWLBY’S THEORY OF MATERNAL DEPRIVATION

(Critical period?)

Answer 50

• Although Bowlby believed that the effects of maternal deprivation would be most acute during the critical period, he noted that there was a risk of adverse consequences up until three years old.
• He also acknowledged that the presence of a mother-substitute could prevent the long-term consequences if they were able to provide adequate and sensitive surrogate emotional care.

Question 51

3. DISCUSS BOWLBY’S THEORY OF MATERNAL DEPRIVATION

(IQ?)

Answer 51

• Bowlby claimed that maternal deprivation could result in delayed intellectual development which would lead to low IQ.
• Furthermore, Bowlby also argued that deprivation could lead to affectionless psychopathy characterised by individuals with a lack of shame or guilt.
• This leads to further problems, such as difficulty forming relationships and a higher probability of criminal tendencies.

Question 52

4. DISCUSS BOWLBY’S THEORY OF MATERNAL DEPRIVATION

RESEARCH SUPPORT?

Answer 52

• Bowlby provided research support for his theory of maternal deprivation.
• He examined 88 children, from 5-16 who were referred to a guidance clinic where he worked.
• 44 of these children were thieves.
• Bowlby identified 14 of these thieves as affectionless psychopaths.
• He then noted that 86 % of the affectionless psychopaths experienced early and prolonged attachment separations in comparison to just 17 % of the ‘ other thieves , and 4 % of the control group .
• These findings suggest a link between early ongoing separation from the primary caregiver and later social maladjustment.
• The maternal deprivation hypothesis appears to lead to affectionless psychopathy and greater risk of engaging in antisocial behaviour.

Question 53

5. DISCUSS BOWLBY’S THEORY OF MATERNAL DEPRIVATION

(COUNTER-CLAIM?)

Answer 53

• There is evidence which counters Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis claims.
• Lewis (1944) replicated the juvenile thieves study with a larger sample of children but did not find that early deprivation, caused by prolonged separation from the primary caregiver, predicted a greater likelihood of criminal behaviour in the youths.
• This casts doubt on Bowlby’s theory as it suggests that other factors may be involved which mediate the consequences of maternal deprivation.
• For example, Barrett (1997) found that securely attached children are more resistant to the negative effects of maternal deprivation in comparison to insecurely attached children.

Question 54

6. DISCUSS BOWLBY’S THEORY OF MATERNAL DEPRIVATION

(NATURE + NURTURE?)

Answer 54

• Bowlby’s theory and the research of Barrett highlight the importance of nature and nurture.
• Bowlby puts forward a critical period of development which demonstrates the importance of a biological mechanism; however, this mechanism is shaped by an infant’s interactions, or lack of interactions, with their caregivers.
• This demonstrates the importance of considering the interaction of nature and nurture when examining maternal deprivation.

Question 55

7. DISCUSS BOWLBY’S THEORY OF MATERNAL DEPRIVATION

(DISTINCTION NOT CLEAR?)

Answer 55

• Finally, Bowlby was criticised for not making the distinction clear between deprivation and privation.
• Rutter (1982) suggests that privation - not having had the opportunity to form an attachment at all - leads to more damaging consequences for the child than experiencing a broken attachment in their early years.
• Rutter disapproved of Bowlby’s use of the word deprivation for he believed that Bowlby was confusing the two concepts and using the term interchangeably.

Question 56

1. DISCUSS BOWLBYS THEORY OF MATERNAL DEPRIVATION - REFER TO JAQUELINE AS PART OF YOUR DISCUSSION

Answer 56

• Bowlby proposed his theory of maternal deprivation approximately 20 years before his theory of attachment
• According to Bowlby, maternal deprivation, which is the loss of emotional care, can have serious long term consequences on a child’s physical, intellectual and emotional wellbeing.

Question 57

2. DISCUSS BOWLBYS THEORY OF MATERNAL DEPRIVATION - REFER TO JAQUELINE AS PART OF YOUR DISCUSSION

Answer 57

• Bowlby put forward the notion of a critical period
• He believed that the effects of the maternal deprivation would be at their most acute during the critical period (3-6 months); he also noted there was a risk of adverse consequences up until three years old.
• However, Bowlby did acknowledge that the presence of a mother substitute could prevent the long term consequences of deprivation the substitute was able to provide the necessary emotional care
• As Jaqueline is unlikely to have formed an attachment while she was in institutional care and she was adopted at the age of six, she passed the critical period and did not have a mother substitute who could prevent the long term consequences of deprivation that she is now experiencing.

Question 58

3. DISCUSS BOWLBYS THEORY OF MATERNAL DEPRIVATION - REFER TO JAQUELINE AS PART OF YOUR DISCUSSION

Answer 58

• If deprivation does occur, Bowlby outlined a series of long term consequences that could affect the individual.
• Bowlby claimed that maternal deprivation could result in delayed intellectual development which would lead to low IQ.
• Furthermore, Bowlby also argued that deprivation could lead to emotional maladjustment in the form of affection less psychopathy characterised by individuals who feel no sense of shame or guilt.
• This results in other problems such as difficulty forming relationships and the possibility of crime
• Jaqueline is demonstrating signs of delayed intellectual development as she is struggling to engage in her lessons, as well as showing signs of affection less psychopathy, due to her lack of feelings when hurting other students and the difficulty she is experiencing when it comes to forming a relationship with her foster family

Question 59

4. DISCUSS BOWLBYS THEORY OF MATERNAL DEPRIVATION - REFER TO JAQUELINE AS PART OF YOUR DISCUSSION

Answer 59

• Bowlby provided research support for his theory of maternal deprivation.
• Bowlby examined 88 children, from 5-16 who were referred to a guidance clinic.
• 44 of these children were thieves; Bowlby identified 14 of these thieves as affection less psychopaths.
• Bowlby found that 86% of the affectionless psychopaths experienced early and prolonged attachment separations in comparison to just 17% of the ‘other thieves’ and 4% of the control group
• These findings suggest a link between early separations and later social maladjustment
• The maternal deprivation hypothesis appears to lead to affection less psychopathy and anti social behaviour - the group of 86% also suffered from prolonged and early separation which explains Jacquelines affection less and antisocial behaviour.

Question 60

5. DISCUSS BOWLBYS THEORY OF MATERNAL DEPRIVATION - REFER TO JAQUELINE AS PART OF YOUR DISCUSSION

(Barett)

Answer 60

• However research also demonstrates that not all children are affected by deprivation in the same way
• Barrett (1997) reported that securely attached children are able to cope better with deprivation in comparison to insecurely attached children.
• Interestingly Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation suggests that children who are deprived of an attachment, usually within a critical period of development, will suffer negative long term consequences (e.g. emotional maladjustment, mental health problems etc)
• This suggests that an infants life chances, like Jaqueline’s are determined by their early attachment experiences
• However, Barrett contradicts this assumption and suggests that there are individual differences that play an important role in maternal deprivation and not all children will suffer the same negative consequences that Jacqueline is experiencing.

Question 61

1. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE RESEARCH INTO THE INFLUENCE OF EARLY ATTACHMENT ON CHILDHOOD AND ADULT RELATIONSHIPS

Answer 61

• The internal working model of an infant is thought to predict the likely outcomes of behaviour in childhood and adulthood.
• Kerns (1994) found that securely attached infants are more inclined to have good quality peer relationships during childhood, whilst infants with insecure attachment types are likely to have difficulties with making or maintaining friendships.
• Sroufe et al. (2005) conducted the Minnesota child-parent study and found that infants who were rated high in social competence during childhood were more empathetic, popular and felt less isolated.

Question 62

2. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE RESEARCH INTO THE INFLUENCE OF EARLY ATTACHMENT ON CHILDHOOD AND ADULT RELATIONSHIPS

(Hazen+ shaver)

Answer 62

• Hazan and Shaver reported a positive correlation between early attachment type and experiences in love.
• Those who reported secure attachments in childhood were the most likely to have loving and lasting romantic relationships in adulthood.
• Respondents to the questionnaire whose answers indicated an insecure-avoidant attachment type from infancy ere more likely to report feelings of dislike in relation to intimacy.
• Those individuals with an insecure-resistant attachment type were more likely to have shorter relationships compared to secure respondents

Question 63

3. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE RESEARCH INTO THE INFLUENCE OF EARLY ATTACHMENT ON CHILDHOOD AND ADULT RELATIONSHIPS

(early attachment/ zimmerman)

Answer 63

• There is mixed research in determining continuity of attachment type from childhood to adulthood. Zimmerman (2000) suggests that infant attachment type and the quality of relationships with parents during adolescence are not related.
• These findings do not support the role of the internal working model being important in the development of childhood and adult relationships, casting doubt on the emphasis placed on this concept by developmental psychologists such as Bowlby.

Question 64

4. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE RESEARCH INTO THE INFLUENCE OF EARLY ATTACHMENT ON CHILDHOOD AND ADULT RELATIONSHIPS

Answer 64

• An issue with investigations of the influence of attachment on later relationships and the role the internal working model is that the research is correlational.
• Whilst an association has been found by many researchers indicating the quality of later relationships is heavily influenced by attachment type from infancy, this is does not determine causality.
• Fraley et al. (2002) found that the correlations were not always strong positive ones either, with correlation coefficients ranging from +.10 to +.50.
• This means that correlational research in this area is not very reliable due to an unstable array of results

Question 65

5. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE RESEARCH INTO THE INFLUENCE OF EARLY ATTACHMENT ON CHILDHOOD AND ADULT RELATIONSHIPS

(methodological issues)

Answer 65

• There are methodological issues with assessing attachment type retrospectively.
• Much research, such as the ‘Love Quiz by Hazan & Shaver rely upon self-report from adult participants about their memories from infancy and childhood.
• Recollections from years gone by are likely to be impaired and any answers provided may lack accuracy due to deterioration which lowers the internal validity of findings.
• This problem is further compounded by the possibility that individuals may not report honestly or even have an insight into their own template of expectations since the internal working model is an unconscious framework.

Question 66

6. OUTLINE AND EVALUATE RESEARCH INTO THE INFLUENCE OF EARLY ATTACHMENT ON CHILDHOOD AND ADULT RELATIONSHIPS

(deterministic)

Answer 66

• Research into the impact of attachment on childhood and adult relationships have very set views on the outcomes for future behaviour.
• Consequently, this presents a deterministic view of behaviour which suggests that an infant’s early attachment experiences will have severe consequences on childhood and adulthood behaviours including mental health.
• However, not all psychologists (e.g. humanistic psychologists) prescribe to deterministic views and many would argue that humans have free will and the ability of overcome negative childhood experiences and go on to form happy and healthy adult relationships.