Attachment Flashcards
(62 cards)
1
Q
what are the two explanations for attachment?
A
- the learning theory
- bowlby’s monotropic theory
2
Q
what does the learning theory of attachment state?
A
that attachments are formed through classical and operant conditioning
3
Q
- how are attachments formed through classical conditioning?
- describe the process (flow chart)
A
the infant learns to associate the primary caregiver with food
- before conditioning, the food is the unconditioned stimulus, and happiness is the unconditioned response produced. during conditioning, the neutral stimulus (the mother/primary caregiver) is presented at the same time as food on multiple occasions, and the food still produces the unconditioned response of a happy baby. it is during this time that the baby learns to associate the mother with food and happiness. so, after conditioning, the sight of the mother alone (who is now a conditioned stimulus) produces the conditioned response of a happy baby. an attachment has now been formed
4
Q
how are attachments formed through operant conditioning?
A
- reinforcement produces an attachment
- for example, crying leads to a response from the caregiver, such as comfort or feeding. as long as the caregiver provides a pleasant response, the crying is positively reinforced. this means the baby will likely cry repeatedly to illicit the pleasant response
5
Q
how is reinforcement a two way process in attachment formation?
A
- as whilst the baby is positively reinforced for crying (by receiving comfort/feeding), the mother is negatively reinforced as when she provides this comfort, the crying stops, (negative reinforcement is when behaviour increases to avoid an unpleasant outcome - like crying)
- so attachment is reinforced for both the infant and the caregiver
6
Q
how can attachment be explained as a secondary drive?
A
- hunger can be thought to be a primary drive, as it is an innate, biological motivator (we are motivated to reduce our own hunger)
- so, it is suggested that, as caregivers provide food, the primary drive of hunger becomes generalised to them
- therefore, attachment is the secondary drive, learned by an association between the caregiver and satisfying the primary drive
7
Q
what is a strength of the learning theory explanation of attachment?
A
- provides valuable insight into how an infant becomes attached to its primary caregiver and the key role that food plays during attachment formation. understanding the role of food can lead to practical applications such as strengthening the role of the father by involving them in feeding. this is a strength as the learning theory has helped to increase and understand attachment between babies and their caregivers, and also uses observable and testable measures to do so.
8
Q
what are the weaknesses of the learning theory explanation of attachment?
A
- contradictory research comes from harlow’s study on rhesus monkeys. he found that monkeys formed an attachment with the cloth mother that provided comfort rather than with the wire mother that provided food. this clearly suggests that attachment is not due to regular feeding but rather contact comfort, which contradicts the learning theory.
A* counter argument - study on monkeys cannot be generalised to humans! = anthropomorphism - many infants form attachments to people that dont feed them. for example, schaffer and emerson found that in 39% of cases, the primary attachment figure was not the person that fed them. therefore, food is not the key factor in attachment formation, weakening the explanations validity.
9
Q
what is bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment?
A
an evolutionary explanation for attachment that hypothesises attachment is an innate system (not learnt) that we utilise to increase our chances of survival
10
Q
what are the four principles of bowlbys monotropic theory?
what is a pneumonic to remember this?
A
MICE
Monotropic bond
Internal working model
Critical period
Evolutionary principles
11
Q
explain each of the four principles of bowlbys monotropic theory
A
monotropic bond = the attachment is to one specific caregiver, that is usually our biological mother. this bond is more important than any other attachment the child forms
internal working model = the monotropic bond acts as a template for all later relationships, and the childs ability to become a parent themselves later in life. eg. if the child is insecurely attached to their parents, it is likely they will have a similar attachment to their own children
critical period = according to bowlby, the first two years of life are the critical period for an attachment to develop. if the attachment does not develop within this critical period (eg due to separation or death), it may seriously damage the childs social and emotional development
evolutionary principles = this explanation is based on evolutionary principles that argue humans have a biological need to attach to a caregiver to increase their survival chances. infants show innate behaviours (such as smiling and crying) that make attachment to a maternal figure possible. these are called social releasers and they bring out care-giving behaviours in adults.
12
Q
what is a strength of bowlby’s monotropic theory as an explanation for attachment?
A
- there is supporting evidence for the internal working model. researchers found that after assessing the attachment style of 99 mothers to their babies and the mother’s mothers, the majority had the same attachment classification both to their babies and their own mothers. this supports bowlby’s view that the internal working model of attachment is passed through families
13
Q
what are the weaknesses of bowlby’s monotropic theory as an explanation for attachment?
A
- the idea of the critical period has been contradicted by evidence. most psychologists instead suggest that there is a sensitive period where attachments are most likely to form, but they could be formed at other times. research has demonstrated even children raised in isolation can go on to form attachments with caregivers after the critical period
A* CA = findings from Lorenz support the idea of the critical period. he found that if imprinting did not occur within a few hours of the geese being hatched, it would not occur at all, thus increasing the validity of bowlby’s claim. - bowlby’s claim that children form a single specific attachment is not supported by evidence. for example, schaffer and emerson found that by 10 months of age, most babies had formed multiple attachments. this matters because research suggests the theory of the monotropic bond lacks reliability.
14
Q
how is maternal deprivation caused?
A
by prolonged separation from the attachment figure, especially during the critical period (first 3 years of life)
15
Q
how can maternal deprivation have effects on intellectual development?
A
researchers have found that maternally deprived children in orphanages have lower IQ’s than those that were fostered
16
Q
how can maternal deprivation have effects on emotional development?
A
maternally deprived children may display affectionless psychopathy, which is when they have an inability to show affection or concern for others, and act on impulse with little regard for the consequence of their actions
17
Q
what research was carried out into bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation? explain the procedure and findings
A
- bowlby’s 44 thieves study
- sample consisted of 44 criminal teenagers who had been accused of stealing.
- they were interviewed for signs of affectionless psychopathy
- their families were also interviewed to establish whether the ‘thieves’ had suffered prolonged early separation from their mothers
- a control group of 44 non-criminal but emotionally disturbed teenagers was set up to see how often maternal deprivation occurred in children who were not delinquent
- findings = 14/44 thieves were described as affectionless psychopaths. of this 14, 12 had experienced prolonged separation in the first 2 years of life
- out of the control group, 2/44 had suffered maternal deprivation, but 0/44 were categorised as affectionless psychopaths
conclusion = maternal deprivation causes affectionless psychopathy
18
Q
what is a strength of bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?
A
- supporting evidence from harlow’s study on rhesus monkeys. in this study, the monkeys suffered maternal deprivation when they were separated from their real mothers, and as adults they were abusive to their offspring, more aggressive and less sociable. this supports the view that maternal deprivation has a detrimental effect on development
19
Q
what are the weaknesses of bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?
A
- contradictory eidence from cross-cultural research. for example, one researcher studied Guatemalan Indians and found that even though children experienced maternal deprivation as they were kept in windowless huts with little interaction with their primary caregiver, they did not experience any social and intellectual impairment. this goes against the maternal deprivation theory.
- theory may be confusing deprivation with privation. deprivation is the loss of the primary attachment figure after an attachment has developed, whereas privation is the failure to form an attachment in the first place. many of the children in the 44 thieves study may have never formed a strong attachment, suggesting privation rather than deprivation. this reduces the internal validity of the study.
20
Q
what is an institute?
A
a place where someone lives outside of the family home, such as a childrens home, a mental hospital, or an prison
21
Q
what does institutionalisation cause?
A
harmful effects such as apathy, loss of personal identity, and independence
22
Q
why did institutionalisation occur in Romania?
A
in the 1990’s, the government required women to have large families, and many Romanian parents could not afford to keep their children, so many ended up in huge orphanages with very poor conditions. this government was overthrown, and many children were adopted by British parents
23
Q
who conducted research into the effects of institutionalisation on development?
A
Rutter
24
Q
describe rutters procedure, and the findings of his experiment into institutionalisation
A
- followed a group of 165 Romanian orphans adopted in Britain. physical, cognitive, and emotional development was assessed at ages 4,6,11 and 15 years. a group of 52 British children adopted around the same time acted as a control group.
findings (the effects of institutionalisation) = when they first arrived in the UK, the adoptees lagged behind their british counterparts in all 3 areas of development. at age 11, the improvement depended on the age they were adopted.
if they were adopted from 0-6 months old, mean IQ score was 102.
if they were adopted between 6 months and 2 years, mean IQ score was 86.
if they were adopted after the age of 2 years old, mean IQ score was 77
- children adopted after 6 months showed signs of attention seeking, clinginess, and disinhibited attachment, which is when the child shows equal affection to strangers as they do to people they know well.
25
what are the strengths of the Romanian orphan studies into the effects of institutionalisation?
- the findings can be applied to real life. for example, orphanages and care homes now avoid having large numbers of caregivers, and instead try to assign each child a key worker. this means that children have the chance to develop normal attachments and helps avoid disinhibited attachment
- there were less extraneous variables than other orphan studies that have used children who were neglected, abused or grieving, which made it difficult to identify the specific factor affecting emotional and intellectual development. in the Romanian orphan study, there were less confounding variables, so the research has a higher internal validity
26
what are the weaknesses of the Romanian orphan studies into the effects of institutionalisation?
- although the data gained is useful, its possible that the conditions were so bad for the Romanian orphans that the results cannot be applied to children in other types of institutional care. for example, the romanian orphanages had particularly poor standards of care and intellectual stimulation. so, the unusual situational variables that exist in this study may prevent this research from being generalised to other groups of institutionalised children
- research lacks data on adult development. this is because Rutter's study only studied children up to the age of 15, which means we have no data on the long-term effects of early institutional care.
27
describe how a child with..
- insecure avoidant
- insecure resistant
- secure
attachment styles may grow up to behave in adulthood. explain why this is the case.
- insecure avoidant = uncomfortable being close to others and not romantically intimate
- insecure resistant = others are reluctant to get as close to them as they would like, very intense in relationships which can scare people away. insecure in relationships.
- secure = find it relatively easy to get close to people and comfortable with being dependable and depending on others
this is the case because of bowlby's internal working model. how a child attaches to their primary caregiver will be their template for all their future relationships.
28
describe how the quality of a child's relationships in childhood is associated with attachment type using research
researchers have found that 3-5 year old securely attached children are more self confident, get along better with other children and are more likely to form closer relationships
researchers have also found, after asking 196 children aged 7-11 from london to complete a questionnaire, that securely attached children were unlikely to be involved in bullying, whereas insecure avoidant children were more likely to be victims of bullying, and insecure resistant children were more likely to be bullies.
29
describe how attachment style in infancy can have an effect on romantic relationships in adulthood using research evidence
hazen and shaver analysed 620 replies to a 'love quiz' printed in an American local newspaper. the quiz had 3 sections:
1. assessment of their current and most significant relationship.
2. assessment of their love life eg. number of partners
3. assessment of their attachment type.
findings = 56% were securely attached, and these people had positive relationship experiences, with an average relationship length of 10 years.
25% were avoidantly attached, with experiences of jealousy and uncomfortableness in relationships, with an average relationship length of 6 years
19% were resistantly attached, with experiences of obsession and desire for intensity in romantic relationships, and an average relationship length of 5 years.
30
describe how the internal working model affects a childs ability to parent their own children in future using research evidence
bailey assessed 99 mothers and their babies, along with the mother's mothers, and found that the majority of women had the same attachment classification both to their babies and to their own mothers. this supports the importance of positive early relationships in parenting abillity.
31
what is a weakness of research into early attachment types on adult relationships?
methodological issues = often based on self report measures eg. hazen and shaver used a love quiz, in which participants could have responded to social desirability bias.
also, theory may be deterministic, as not all children who experience poor attachments with their parents in infancy are 'doomed' to experience unhealthy relationships as adults.
32
what was the aim of lorenz's study?
: Lorenz wanted to investigate imprinting in attachment formation. (Phenomenon where birds such as geese and chickens, which are mobile from birth, follow the first moving object, usually the mother.)
33
what was the procedure of lorenz's study?
1. Lorenz randomly split a batch of grey goose eggs into two groups.
2. One group were hatched by their mother in a natural environment (control group). The other group were hatched in an incubator where the first moving object they saw was Lorenz (experimental group).
3. The behaviour of the geese was then carefully observed.
4. Lorenz also observed the effect of imprinting on adult mate preferences.
34
what were the findings of lorenz's study?
The experimental group imprinted on Lorenz; demonstrated by the fact that they followed him wherever he went.
2. The control group hatched imprinted on their mother.
3. When the two groups were mixed up, the control group continued to follow the mother and the experimental group followed Lorenz.
4. Lorenz noted imprinting would only occur within a critical period (between 4 and 25 hours).
5. Lorenz reported that geese who imprinted on a human would later display courtship behaviour towards humans.
35
what are the weaknesses of lorenz's study?
✘ Critical Period has been questioned
P- Research conducted by Sluckin (1966) questions the validity of the critical period. E- Sluckin replicated Lorenz’s research using ducklings instead of goslings. Like Lorenz, he got the ducklings to imprint on him. E- However, Sluckin kept one duckling in isolation well beyond Lorenz’s reported critical period. He found it was still possible to imprint this youngster and concluded that the L- critical period was actually a sensitive period, but attachments could still be formed.
✘ P-Imprinting can be reversed
E-Guiton (1996) found that chickens who imprinted on yellow washing up gloves would try to mate with them as adults (as Lorenz would have predicted), but that with experience they eventually learned to prefer mating with other chickens. L- This suggests that the impact of imprinting on mating behaviour is not as permanent as Lorenz believed.
36
what was the aim of harlow's study?
Harlow wanted to find whether contact comfort was more important in attachment than food (cupboard love theory)
37
what was the procedure of harlow's study?
Harlow reared 16 baby rhesus monkeys with two surrogate (or substitute) mothers. One of the “mothers” was made of wire and the other was covered in soft material. The wire mother produced milk whereas the cloth-covered mother did not.
2. The amount of time spent with each mother, as well as feeding time, was recorded.
3. The monkeys were deliberately frightened with a loud noise to test for mother preference during stress.
4. The long-term effects were recorded: E.g., the monkey’s behaviour in adulthood in terms of sociability and their relationship to their own offspring.
38
what were the findings of harlow's study?
1. The monkeys spent most of their time on their cloth mother even though she did not supply milk. The cloth mother provided “contact comfort” which was clearly preferable. The monkeys even stretched across to the wire mother to feed while still clinging to the cloth mother.
2. When frightened, by a loud noise, the monkeys clung to the cloth mother.
3. As adults, the monkeys were abusive to their offspring, even killing them in some cases. The monkeys were also more aggressive and less sociable than other monkeys
Conclusion: This study shows that “contact comfort” is of more importance to monkey than food when it comes to attachment.
39
what is a strength of harlows study?
P-Harlow’s findings had a profound effect on psychologists’ understanding of mother-infant attachment; E-Harlow showed that attachment does not develop as the result of being fed by a mother figure (as the learning theory would suggest) but as a result of contact comfort. E-Harlow also showed the importance of the quality of early relationships for later social development. L-Therefore, this research has led to important developments in the area of attachment.
P-The insight into attachment from Harlow’s research has had important practical applications in a range of contexts. E-For example, it has helped social workers understand risks factors in child neglect and abuse and so intervene to prevent it. L-Therefore being able to apply our knowledge of animal research to real life situations.
40
what are the weaknesses of harlow's study?
P-Harlow faced severe criticism for the ethics of this research. The monkeys suffered greatly as a result of Harlow’s procedures E-e.g. they were deliberately stressed and frightened. E-Rhesus monkeys are closely related to humans suggesting that these animals suffered more greatly than less developed animals such as geese. L-The unethical practices seriously undermine the
credibility of psychology as a science. CA-However, a counter-argument is that Harlow’s research is sufficiently important to justify these negative effects. E.g., they have highlighted the importance of contact comfort in child development.
41
what are caregiver interactions for?
what are the two types of non-verbal caregiver infant interactions?
Caregiver interactions help to build and strengthen the attachment between parent and child; the more sensitive the caregiver is to the infant’s signals, the stronger the attachment becomes.
- reciprocity
- interactional synchrony
42
what is reciprocity?
These interactions involve both parties producing responses from each other. They take turns, as people do in a conversation. For example, an infant cries and the caregiver responds by feeding or cuddling the baby, the baby babbles words and the caregiver talks back.
43
what is interactional synchrony
Interactional synchrony takes place when mother and infant interact in a way that their actions and emotions mirror each other and produce the same actions at the same time
44
what are the strengths of caregiver infant interactions?
research evidence
studied reciprocity, synchrony and attachment quality in 101 infants and their mothers for the first year after birth. E-Mothers and babies were invited into the lab on three occasions. At 12 months the quality of mother–infant attachment was assessed. Babies judged to be securely attached tended to be those that had the most reciprocal interactions and
the most synchrony. L-This suggests that care-giver interactions play a vital part in forming attachments
------------------------------------------------------------
other researchers found that infants aged 2-3 weeks tended to mimic adults’ specific facial expressions and hand movements. E-This mimicking of behaviour has also been observed in babies as young as 3 days old. L-This study suggests that caregiver interactions are an innate ability, used to aid in the formation of attachment.
45
what is a weakness of caregiver infant interactions
Cultural Variations
P-Caregiver-infant interactions are not found in all cultures, for example, one researcher reported Kenyan mothers have little interaction or physical contact with their infants, but a high proportion of secure attachments. E-Therefore, the majority of the research into this area may be criticised for being ethnocentric (culture biased) and ignoring how attachments may be formed within other cultures. L-This study weakens support for the idea that caregiver interactions are necessary for attachment formation.
46
who carried out research into the stages of attachment?
describe the procedure
- schaffer and emerson
1. 60 babies from skilled working class Glasgow homes were studied.
2. The babies were visited at home every month for the first year and again at 18 months.
3. The mothers were questioned about how the child behaved when they were separated (separation anxiety) and how they behaved with unfamiliar adults (stranger anxiety).
47
what were the findings of schaffer and emersons research?
Between 25- 32 weeks of age about 50% of the babies showed signs of separation anxiety towards a particular adult, usually the mother (this is called a specific attachment).
2. By 40 weeks 80% of the babies had a specific attachment and almost 30% displayed multiple attachments.
Schaffer and Emerson proposed that attachments develop over four stages.
48
what are the four stages of attachment proposed by schaffer and emerson
Asocial Phase Birth – 3months
Infants become attracted to other humans from six weeks old. They smile more at faces than objects.
2. Indiscriminate Attachment
3 -7 months
Infants begin to recognise and prefer familiar faces; however, they will accept comfort from any adult. Therefore, their attachment behaviour is said to be indiscriminate because all adults are treated the same.
3. Specific Attachment
7-8 months
From around 7 months, infants start to develop anxiety around strangers and become distressed if separated from one specific adult (in 65% of cases the mother). This person is known as the primary attachment figure.
4. Multiple Attachments
9 months onwards
Infants form multiple attachments with other people who they spend a lot of time with like their grandparents and other children. These relationships are called secondary attachments.
49
what are the weaknesses of the stages of attachment?
X Cultural Variations
P-Many researchers believe that infants must establish one primary attachment before they develop further multiple attachments. E-However, there is evidence from cross cultural research to show that babies are capable of developing multiple attachments from birth. E-Cultures where this is more likely to occur are called collectivist cultures because families work together jointly in everything. L-Therefore, there is no agreement within psychology about when multiple attachments are formed.
× Problems Measuring Attachment
P-One limitation of research into this area is that it is very difficult to measure the behaviour of very young children. E-This is particularly problematic during the asocial stage as the babies aren’t very mobile, which means there is very little behaviour to observe. Even when a child does become mobile, their behaviour could be incorrectly interpreted. E-For example, if a baby cries when the mother leaves the room, we presume that they are crying because they are attached to her, however, they make be crying because they are tired or hungry. L-This is a problem for Schaffer and Emerson’s stages because it is difficult to determine from an observation alone, whether the behaviour shown is due to the attachment figure, or some other reasons.
50
what is a strength of the stages of attachment?
P-Good external validity
E-Schaffer and Emerson’s study was carried out in the families’ own homes and most of the observations were done by parents during ordinary activities and reported to researchers later. E-This means that the behaviour of the babies was unlikely to be affected by the presence of observers. There is an excellent chance that the participants’ behaviour naturally while being observed. L-This increases the external validity of the Schaffer & Emerson’s study.
Ext: This study has been criticised due to its limited sample – questions of generalisability.
51
the role of the father (ao1)
Traditionally fathers have been seen to have played a minor role in the parenting of their children. For example, Bowlby (1951) believed that children have one specific bond and this is usually to the mother. But society has changed a lot and researchers have begun to investigate the importance of fathers in a child’s development. For example, Karen Grossman (2002) carried out a longitudinal study and found that quality of adolescent attachment to the father is related to father's play with infants. This suggests that fathers have a different role in attachment - one that is more to do with play and stimulation and less to do with nurturing.
Fathers as primary carers
There is evidence to suggest when fathers do take on the role of being the main caregiver, they adopt behaviours more typical of mothers. Field (1978) filmed 4-month babies in face-to-face interactions with their fathers. She found a difference in the interactions when the father was the primary rather than secondary caregiver; they spent more time smiling, imitating and holding their babies than the secondary caregivers. So, it seems that fathers can be more nurturing attachment figure and the key to attachment is the level of responsiveness not the gender of the caregiver.
52
what are the weaknesses of the role of the father?
Children without fathers: Many studies have found that children growing up without a father (e.g. single parent or same-sex parents) do not develop any differently than those who grow up with both a father and mother. This suggests that fathers do not have a significant impact on children’s development.
× Why fathers don’t become primary caregivers? Evolutionary psychologists would argue that females, rather than males, are biologically pre-disposed to be more nurturing. For example, the female hormone oestrogen leads to the caring behaviours seen more frequently in females rather than males. This study supports the view that women are biologically predisposed to be the primary caregiver and that men have a lesser role to play in their children’s’ lives.
53
what is a strength of the role of the father?
Fathers are important not just for children, but mothers too. Supportive fathers provide mothers with much needed time away from childcare. This can help reduce stress in mothers, improve self-esteem and ultimately, improve the mother’s relationship with her children.
54
describe the procedure of the strange situation
The study took place in an unfamiliar room with one way glass, so the behaviour of the infants could be observed covertly. Infants were aged between 12 and 18 months. The sample comprised of 100 middle-class American families.
The behaviour used to judge the attachment included:
1. Proximity seeking: an infant with a secure attachment will stay fairly close to the caregiver.
2. Exploration: a secure attachment enables a child to feel confident to explore the room, using the caregiver as a secure base.
3. Separation anxiety: does the child protest when separated from the caregiver?
4. Stranger anxiety: if the attachment is secure, you would expect the child to display anxiety when approached by a stranger.
5. Reunion Response: this measures how the child reacts when finally reunited with the caregiver.
The procedure had seven episodes, each lasting three minutes:
1. child is encouraged to explore = tests secure base and exploration
2. stranger comes in and tries to interact with the child = tests stranger anxiety
3. caregiver leaves stranger and child together = separation and stranger anxiety
4. caregiver returns and stranger leaves = reunion behaviour and secure base
5. caregiver leaves child alone = separation anxiety
6. stranger returns = stranger anxiety
7. caregiver returns and is reunited with child = reunion behaviour
Every aspect of participants’ behaviours was observed and videotaped, with most attention given to the reunion behaviours
55
what were the three types of attachment identified by ainsworth?
Type A = Insecure avoidant
(20-25)% of infants) The child does not seek contact from the mother. The child seems unconcerned when the mother leaves. The child shows few signs of distress and ignored or avoided the stranger. The child ignores the mother on her return.
Type B = Secure
(60-75% of infants) Mother is seen as a safe base from which the child can explore. The child cries shortly after the mother leaves The child is wary of the stranger and maintains closeness to its mother. The child seeks contact when the mother returns and is easy to comfort.
Type C = Insecure resistant
(less than 10% of infants) The child is wary of their mother and they don’t explore their environment. The child shows intense distress when the mother has left. The child is extremely distressed when left with the stranger. The child is AMBIVALENT (seeking and rejecting the mother e.g. crying for the mother but then pushing her away
56
what is a strength of ainsworth's strange situation
Reliable measure: P-The Strange Situation is a reliable measure of attachment; it takes place under controlled conditions and the behavioural categories are easy to observe. E-Bick (2012) looked at the inter-rater reliability in a team of trained Strange Situation observers and found agreement on attachment type of 94% of tested babies. L-This means we can be confident that the attachment type of an infant identified in the Strange Situation does not just depend on who is observing them.
57
what are the weaknesses of the strange situation
Lacks ecological validity: P-Critics argue the findings are inaccurate as the Strange Situation is an unrealistic situation for both the infant and caregiver. E-Some researchers suggests attachment types tend to be stronger in this controlled setting rather than in the child’s own home. E-E.g. they may cry less when in a familiar environment. L-This reduces the ecological validity of the procedure and limits its applicability.
× Culturally biased: P-The Strange Situation is based on American attachment behaviours and ignores how child rearing practices in other cultures may affect behaviour in the strange situation. E-For example, Japanese infants are rarely separated from their parents, E-therefore, this can result in the child being wrongly classified as being insecure resistant. L-This reduces the external validity of the procedure and limits its applicability.
58
who carried out research into the cultural variations in attachment
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg
59
describe van ijzendoorn kroonenberg's procedure
1. Results from 32 studies on attachment that had used the Strange Situation were examined (18 of these were from the USA).
2. These studies were conducted in 8 countries with a total sample size of 1,990 infants.
3. Data for these studies were meta-analysed (results combined and analysed together).
60
what were the findings of the meta analysis in cultural variations of attachment
In all countries secure attachment was the most common. However, the proportion varied from 75% in Britain to 50% in China.
Insecure-resistant was overall the least common type although the proportions ranged from 3% in Britain to around 30% in Israel.
· Insecure-avoidant was observed most commonly in Germany and least commonly in Japan.
An interesting finding was that variations between results of studies within the same country were actually 150% greater than those between countries. In the USA, for example, one study found only 46% securely attached compared to one sample as high as 90%.
61
what is a strength of the cultural variations of attachment
+ Large sample: P-A strength of Van Ijzendoorn’ meta-analysis, is the large sample that was generated. E-Nearly 2000 mothers and babies were used in this study. E-This sample size is a strength as it reduces the impact of poor methodology. L-Therefore, being able to generalise the findings to a larger population.
CA-On the other hand, a criticism of Van Ijzendoorn’s study is the limited number of studies in some countries. For example, only one study was conducted in China, whereas 18 studies were conducted in the USA. This is a problem because we are unable to generalise from such a limited sample to the entire country.
62
what are the weaknesses of the cultural variations of attachment
Culturally biased: P-The Strange Situation was designed by Ainsworth (an American researcher) and is based on a British theory (Bowlby). Nevertheless, the test has been used worldwide to judge infants in other cultures. This is an example of imposed etic (when we create a theory, test or construct in one culture, (usually Western, and impose it on the rest of the world!).
E-For example, in the strange situation a lack of separation anxiety indicates an insecure avoidant attachment. However in Germany, independent behaviour is encouraged and therefore a lack of separation anxiety is not a sign of insecurity. E-Additionally, the greater frequency of insecure resistant in Japan may result from the fact that Japanese infants are rarely separated from their mothers, so would find the situation more distressing than children from other cultures. L-This is a problem as it suggests that cross cultural comparisons using the ‘strange situation’, may lack validity.
