attachment - key studies

Question 1

why do we study animals?

Answer 1

-early research into attachment was usually done on animals as there is biological similarity between animals and humans
↳ if something was observed in animal attachment behaviour, it stands to reason that it could also be applied to humans

-research using animals are often seen as more ethical than when conducted with human participants

-researchers are often interested in seeing results over a life span → there are practical advantages of using animals since they breed faster than humans do

Question 2

which animal studies were conducted?

Answer 2

-lorenz (1935)
-harlow (1959)

Question 3

the aim of lorenz’s study:

Answer 3

to examine imprinting in animals

Question 4

what is imprinting?

Answer 4

where the offspring follows and forms an attachment bond to the first large moving object they see after birth

Question 5

the method of lorenz’s study:

Answer 5

-lorenz conducted an experiment where he randomly divided goose eggs into two batches

-one batch, the control group, was hatched naturally by the mother
-the second batch, the experimental group, were placed in an incubator (lorenz made sure he was the first large moving object that the goslings saw after hatching)

-whether the goslings followed lorenz or the mother goose was recorded
-lorenz then marked the goslings with the conditions they were in & put them in an upside down box

-the box was then removed and whether the goslings followed lorenz or the mother goose was recorded again

Question 6

the results of lorenz’s study:

Answer 6

-lorenz found that straight after birth the naturally-hatched goslings followed their mother goose, whereas the incubator-hatched goslings followed Lorenz
-when the upside-down box was taken away, the naturally-hatched goslings moved immediately towards their mother, while the incubator-hatched goslings followed lorenz, showing no attachment to their biological mother

-the chicks who saw lorenz before anything else, followed him as if he was their mother
-when they were adult, they performed mating displays to him, and ignored other geese (sexual imprinting)

Question 7

lorenz’s study: imprinting facts

Answer 7

-imprinting only occurred within a critical period (0-32 hours after hatching)
-this relationship persisted over time and proved to be irreversible

Question 8

what has lorenz’s research told us about attachment in real life?

Answer 8

-there is a critical period when attachment should be formed, like the imprinting of geese (if the attachments aren’t formed within this time, they will be weaker / won’t form)
-attachment is biological & irreversible
-attachment in early life has an impact on adult relationships

Question 9

criticisms of lorenz’s research:

Answer 9

-an issue with lorenz’s work is generalising the result to humans
-later research has cast doubt onto some of the conclusions
-it was questioned whether or not there actually was a critical period
-ethical issues

Question 10

ao3 / criticism - an issue with lorenz’s work is generalising the result to humans

Answer 10

P - an issue with lorenz’s work is generalising the result to humans

E - lorenz only studied geese → we can’t generalise the results to humans since we can’t conclude that they would behave in exactly the same way
↳ attachment formation in mammals appears to be very different to bird species with parents, with the added ability of being able to form attachments beyond the first few hours after birth

L - whilst some of lorenz’s findings have greatly influenced our understanding of development and attachment formation, caution must be applied when drawing wider conclusions about the results

Question 11

ao3 / criticism - later research has cast doubt onto some of the conclusions

Answer 11

P - later research has cast doubt onto some of the conclusions that lorenz drew from his research

E - guiton et al. (1966) found that chickens would imprint on yellow washing up gloves if that was the largest moving object they first saw after birth and that, in turn, they would then try to mate with that object in adulthood
↳ guiton et al. disagreed with lorenz’s predictions that this relationship persists and is irreversible since, with experience, the chickens could eventually learn to prefer mating with other chickens instead

L - suggests that the effects of imprinting may not be as permanent as initially thought

Question 12

ao3 / criticism - critical periods were questioned

Answer 12

P - sluckin (1966) questioned whether there actually was a critical period

E - sluckin performed a replication of lorenz’s research, using ducklings, he successfully imprinted them onto himself, but kept one duckling in isolation well beyond lorenz’s reported critical period (up to five days)
↳ he found it was still possible to imprint this youngster

L - this suggests that the critical period is either longer than lorenz thought or a sensitive period

Question 13

ao3 / criticism - ethical issues

Answer 13

P - ethical issues

E - once imprinting has occurred within a human, the geese believe they can only mate with lorenz (they performed mating rituals to lorenz rather than other geese)
↳ the experiment had prevented the geese from reproducing

L - there are therefore ethical issues which may affect the life of the geese

Question 14

the aim of harlow’s study:

Answer 14

to examine the extent to which contact comfort and food influences attachment
behaviour in baby rhesus monkeys

Question 15

the sample of harlow’s study:

Answer 15

8 baby rhesus monkeys

Question 16

the caged conditions of harlow’s study:

Answer 16

1) wire mother dispensing milk and ‘cloth mother’ with no milk

2) wire mother with no milk and ‘cloth mother’ dispensing milk

Question 17

the method of harlow’s study:

Answer 17

harlow constructed surrogate two mothers: one wire mother and a ‘towelling mother’
-baby rhesus monkeys were used across the conditions

-the amount of time the baby rhesus monkeys spent with each mother was recorded & how long they spent feeding at each one

stress:
↳ to test for mother preference during periods of stress, the monkeys were startled with a loud noise and their responses recorded

exploration:
a larger cage was used in some conditions to observe the degree of exploration by the baby rhesus monkeys

Question 18

variations & findings of harlow’s study:

Answer 18

wire mother giving food vs cloth mother giving food:
-monkeys spent more time with the cloth mother (even if she had no milk). the infant would only go to the wire mother when hungry
↳ once fed it would return to the cloth mother for most of the day

scaring the monkeys:
–monkeys ran to cloth mother regardless of whether dispensing food

removing each mother:
-monkey cried more when the cloth mother was removed

exploration version:
-monkeys were too scared to explore when wire mother present, but found confidence to explore when cloth mother was present

Question 19

rhesus monkeys: critical period

Answer 19

-harlow concludes that the critical period for a mother figure to be introduced to the baby monkey to form an attachment is 90 days

-if an attachment is not made with the mother figure during the critical period, then attachment is impossible and the damage of early maternal deprivation is irreversible

(bad behaviors were only seen in the monkeys left with the surrogate mothers for more than 90 days / for those left less than 90 days, the effects could be reversed if placed in a normal environment where they could form attachments)

Question 20

define critical period:

Answer 20

a set time in which imprinting must occur or it never would do so

Question 21

define sensitive period:

Answer 21

a time period best for imprinting
to perform, beyond this time attachments could still be formed

Question 22

adult behaviours of the baby rhesus monkeys:

Answer 22

-those reared with just the wire mother were the most dysfunctional
-but even those with cloth mother had abnormal social behaviour in adulthood

-aggressive & less sociable
-neglectful parenting of young
-more shy
-unskilled mating behaviour

Question 23

conclusion of harlow’s study:

Answer 23

-baby rhesus monkeys appear to have an innate drive to seek contact comfort from their parent
-this suggests that attachment is formed through an emotional need for security rather than food (which is in contrast to the learning theory explanation)

-contact comfort provided by the mother
→ more willing to explore their surroundings, lower levels of stress

Question 24

what important point was found from harlow’s study?

Answer 24

the importance of bonding between caregiver and baby

Question 25

Spike is a zookeeper who specialises in the care of monkeys. He has just been asked by the police to take charge of a 15-day-old orphan monkey called Poppy who was rescued from a home where she was kept alone in a cage with a soft towel. When Spike first meets the baby monkey, Poppy clings to the towel and screams in fear when she sees she is in a new environment. The police ask Spike what would have been the effect on Poppy had she not been rescued and what sort of future she can look forward to at the zoo.

Answer 25

…

Question 26

based on Harlow's research how would Poppy's social development have probably turned out if she had not been rescued?

Answer 26

poppy likely would have grown up to be aggressive, lack social urges, struggle to breed and be a poor parent, due to a lack of emotional connection

Question 27

referring to Harlow's research, suggest how Spike should proceed with Poppy. how good are her chances of healthy development?

Answer 27

because she is still in the sensitive stage, it is possible for poppy to form a good attachment. spike should provide her with emotional comfort, by putting her with another adult surrogate mother monkey, therefore he still has good attachment

Question 28

strengths of harlow’s research:

Answer 28

-it has practical applications

Question 29

ao3 / strength: harlow’s research has practical applications

Answer 29

P - harlow’s research has practical applications E - there are applications which are used in the care of captive wild monkeys in zoos or breeding programs to ensure they have adequate attachment figures as part of their care ↳ harlow also showed the importance of the **quality of early relationships for later social development** L - this shows that harlow's work has both theoretical and practical value

Question 30

criticisms of harlow’s research:

Answer 30

-generalising the results from monkeys to humans isn’t possible -ethical issues

Question 31

ao3 / criticisms - a limitation is generalising the results from monkeys to humans

Answer 31

P - a limitation is generalising the results from monkeys to humans E - monkeys are more similar to humans than geese (primate mammals), but they are still not humans ↳ **there is still a wide variety of differences physically** and in our behaviours and emotions / humans are more complex than monkeys ↳ (eg: human babies develop speech like communication which may help develop the formation of attachment in humans) L - this affects the external validity of harlow's work

Question 32

ao3 / criticisms - ethical issues (+ however)

Answer 32

P - harlow was criticised heavily for the ethics of his research on baby rhesus monkeys E - harlow's procedures were very stressful for the monkey participants, especially as the stress was long-term L - therefore the study was abusive towards animals however: harlow's research has practical applications that have benefitted large numbers of humans and animals ↳ therefore, it could be argued that the studies were justified

Question 33

what does learning theory propose?

Answer 33

that all behaviour is learned rather than innate

Question 34

what does learning theory explain?

Answer 34

how **infants learn** to become attached to their primary caregiver through the process of either classical conditioning or operant conditioning

Question 35

what else is learning theory called?

Answer 35

cupboard love theory: -the main principles of **this explanation for attachment** focuses on food -it is thought that infants will form an attachment to whoever feeds them -the strongest attachments will be with those who provide the most primary care (whoever looks after and feeds them)

Question 36

classical conditioning:

Answer 36

learning through associaion

Question 37

classical conditioning & human attachment (steps)

Answer 37

1) before conditioning, food is a UCS that produces relief from hunger/pleasure 2) before conditioning, the caregiver produces no conditioned response at all from the child 3) during conditioning, the child associates **the caregiver who feeds them** with the food 4) through many repeated pairings, the caregiver becomes a conditioned stimulus who is **associated with the pleasure from feeding** ↳ this results in the caregiver eliciting a **relief from hunger from the child** (an attachment forms)

Question 38

classical conditioning & human attachment (simple steps)

Answer 38

food (UCS) → pleasure (UCR) mother (NS) → no response food (UCS) + mother (NS) → pleasure (UCR) mother (CS) → pleasure (CR)

Question 39

operant conditioning

Answer 39

learning through consequences

Question 40

what is drive reduction theory? (& how does it relate to infants)

Answer 40

1) an animal is uncomfortable 2) this creates a drive in them to reduce this discomfort (a hungry infant has a drive to reduce the accompanying discomfort)

Question 41

positive reinforcement & human attachment: (steps)

Answer 41

1) when an infant feels hunger, it has a drive to reduce these unpleasant feelings and cries 2) crying leads to a response from the caregiver (e.g. feeding) ↳ this **creates a feeling of pleasure** as the hunger drive is reduced, this is rewarding for the baby 3) the behaviour that led to being fed is more likely to be repeated in the future because it was rewarding. (food becomes the primary reinforcer) 4) attachment occurs because the child seeks the person who can supply the reward 5) this reinforcement is reciprocal since the caregiver also experiences a reward in the form of negative reinforcement

Question 42

negative reinforcement & human attachment: (steps)

Answer 42

-the caregiver receives negative reinforcement because the crying stops (escaping something unpleasant is reinforcing) -feeding/comforting a baby avoids the crying so it is likely to be repeated

Question 43

ao3 / issues & debate - learning theory

Answer 43

-the learning theory explanation suggests that attachments are the result of learning through classical / operant conditioning ↳ supporting a nurture based view of behaviour -therefore, such theories are reductionist as they reduce complex behaviour (formation of attachments) to a simple stimulus-response association

Question 44

criticisms of learning theory:

Answer 44

-learning theory is undermined by research by Harlow -learning theory is refuted by research from lorenz -methodological issues with the research evidence for learning theory

Question 45

ao3 / criticism - learning theory is undermined by research by Harlow

Answer 45

P - learning theory is undermined by research by Harlow E - he found that baby rhesus monkeys spent more time with a soft towelling monkey which provided no food, in comparison to a wire monkey that provided food ↳ this shows that baby monkeys do not form attachments based on presence of food alone and prefer contact comfort L - these findings conflict with the cupboard love theory

Question 46

ao3 / criticism - learning theory is refuted by research from Lorenz

Answer 46

P - learning theory is refuted by research from Lorenz E - he found that upon hatching, baby geese followed the first moving object they saw ↳ this process (imprinting) appears to be innate (as they would have no time to learn this behaviour) L - this shows that **animals demonstrate some inborn attachment behaviours to aid survival which goes against the idea that we ‘learn’ to attach to a caregiver because they feed us**

Question 47

ao3 / criticism - there are methodological issues with the research evidence for learning theory

Answer 47

P - there are methodological issues with the research evidence for learning theory E - much of the supporting research, for example, Pavlov’s research on dogs and Skinner’s research with rats and pigeons is criticised for its over-reliance on animals ↳ psychologists argue that behaviourist explanations provide an oversimplified account of attachment formation, which is in fact a complex emotional bond between a human infant and their caregiver L - as a result, the learning theory explanation may lack validity since it is difficult to generalise animal findings to humans with confidence that they would behave in the same way

Question 48

strength of learning theory:

Answer 48

learning theory may not provide a complete explanation of attachment but it does have some value

Question 49

ao3 / strength - learning theory isn’t a complete explanation, but has value

Answer 49

P - learning theory may not provide a complete explanation of attachment but it does have some value E - it may be true that infants do learn through association and reinforcement but food may not be the **main reinforcer** ↳ it may be that attention and responsiveness from the caregiver are **important rewards that assist in the formation of attachments** L - it may also be that responsiveness is something that infants imitate and therefore learn how to conduct relationships

Question 50

what are the drives & reinforcers of cupboard love (operant conditioning)?

Answer 50

hunger = primary drive attachment = secondary drive (infant will seek the person who can supply the reward) food = primary reinforcer caregiver = secondary reinforcer

Question 51

what does bowlby’s theory try to explain?

Answer 51

why attachments form

Question 52

what does bowlby’s monotropic theory state?

Answer 52

-the theory takes an evolutionary perspective -bowlby argued that children are born with an innate tendency to form attachments **with their parents** in order to increase chances of survival (be protected) -attachments and imprinting persist because they are adaptive

Question 53

five key concepts from bowlby’s theory:

Answer 53

-adaptive -social releasers -critical period -monotropy -internal working model

Question 54

mnemonic for bowlby’s theory:

Answer 54

A Snap Chat Makes Images

Question 55

adaptive: (bowlby’s monotropic theory)

Answer 55

-attachments are adaptive which means they make humans more likely to survive -if an infant **has an attachment**, they are kept safe, given food and kept warm by their caregiver

Question 56

social releasers: (why attachments form)

Answer 56

-infants possess inborn social releasers, which unlock an innate tendency to care for them

Question 57

what two things are social releasers?

Answer 57

they are physical: -the typical 'baby face' features that make babies appear cute such as big eyes and a button nose they are behavioural: -crying, cooing and smiling to get attention

Question 58

critical period (why attachments form)

Answer 58

-infants must form an attachment with their caregiver during the critical period (0 - 2.5 years of age) -however, bowlby later acknowledged that infants could form an attachment after this period (0 - 5 years) ↳ he maintained that the successful formation of an attachment would be increasingly difficult after this initial period

Question 59

what did bowlby claim would happen if an attachment didn’t form during the critical period?

Answer 59

if an attachment did not form during this time frame, the child would **be damaged for life** → socially, emotionally, intellectually & physically

Question 60

monotropy (why attachments form)

Answer 60

-bowlby believed that infants form one very special attachment with their PCG, most frequently the mother -this intense attachment is called monotropy -all other attachments are in a hierarchy below

Question 61

what happens if the mother isn’t available for monotropy?

Answer 61

the infant can bond with another ever-present adult, known as a mother substitute

Question 62

internal working model (why attachments form)

Answer 62

through the monotropic attachment, the infant would form an internal working model

Question 63

what is an internal working model?

Answer 63

is an internal template for future relationship expectations, it is based off of monotropic attachments

Question 64

how the internal working model affects the future:

Answer 64

-if a child has a strong and healthy attachment with their primary attachment figure, then they will develop strong and healthy relationships, later in life -if the child has a negative relationship with their primary attachment figure, they will have negative social and romantic relationships in their later life

Question 65

strengths of bowlby’s theory:

Answer 65

-research by lorenz supports the theory -there is supporting research from hazan and shaver

Question 66

ao3 / strength - research by lorenz supports the theory (+ however)

Answer 66

P - a strength of bowlby’s theory comes from research by Lorenz E - Lorenz found that upon hatching, baby geese followed the first moving object they saw, during a 12–17 hour critical period ↳ this process in birds is known as imprinting & appears to be innate (as they would have no time to learn this behaviour) L - Lorenz’s research supports Bowlby’s idea of a critical period and demonstrates that geese are born with behaviours which help them to survive

Question 67

ao3 / strength - there is supporting research from hazan and shaver

Answer 67

P - there is supporting research from hazan and shaver (1987) E - hazan and shaver used a self-report questionnaire called ‘the love quiz’ to assess the internal working model ↳ they found a positive correlation between early attachment **types** and later adult relationships L - this supports bowlby’s idea of an internal working model and suggests that our early childhood experiences do affect our later adult relationships

Question 68

criticisms of bowlby’s theory:

Answer 68

-there is mixed evidence for the importance of monotropy -there is an alternative explanation for attachment

Question 69

ao3 / criticism - there is mixed evidence for the importance of monotropy

Answer 69

P - there is mixed evidence for the importance of monotropy E - schaffer and emerson (1964) refute the idea that infants must form one special attachment to their caregiver which supersedes all others and provides the foundation for subsequent, multiple attachments ↳ they did recognise that some infants do, in fact, follow this **pattern** but that there are others who can form multiple attachments with different caregivers at the same time L - this suggests that bowlby’s monotropic theory may not be universal which undermines the theory

Question 70

ao3 / criticism - there is an alternative explanation for attachment

Answer 70

P - there is an alternative explanation for attachment E - kagan (1984) proposed the temperament hypothesis ↳ this suggests that a child’s genetically inherited personality trait (temperament) have a role to play in forming an attachment with a caregiver ↳ it is thought that infants have differing temperaments because of their biological makeup which means some are more sociable and ‘easy’ and others are more anxious and ‘difficult’ babies ↳ it’s argued that bowlby ignored the role of temperament, which was an oversight, since personality differences in the child can influence whether they become securely or insecurely attached L - researchers criticise bowlby for over-emphasising the importance of a child’s early experiences and the quality of attachments rather than temperamental differences

Question 71

issues & debates: bowlby’s theory:

Answer 71

-bowlby’s theory suggests that attachments are an innate mechanism to aid survival (nature) -bowlby’s theory puts forward the notion of an internal working model who ↳ this suggests that adult relationships are, to some extent (nature and nurture is critical when considering the effects of early attachments and the internal working model)

Question 72

who conducted the strange situation and when?

Answer 72

ainsworth (1971)

Question 73

what is the strange situation?

Answer 73

an observational method for testing the type of attachment between a caregiver and an infant

Question 74

how was the strange situation conducted?

Answer 74

-infants aged between 9-18 months were placed in a new situation of mild stress, namely an unfamiliar room whereby they are left alone, left with a stranger and reunited with their caregiver -ainsworth observed how the infants behaved through a one-way mirror during a set of eight different scenarios, each lasting approximately three minutes

Question 75

which behaviours were observed by ainsworth?

Answer 75

-proximity seeking -separation anxiety -reunion behaviour -exploration/safe-base behaviour -stranger anxiety

Question 76

why were infants aged between 9 and 18 months used in the strange situation?

Answer 76

they’re mobile

Question 77

the stages of the strange situation:

Answer 77

1) the pair enter the room. the mother sits on one of the chairs and reads a magazine. the child is placed on the floor and is free to explore the toys. (exploration) 2) a stranger enters and sits on the second chair and talks briefly with the mother. (stranger anxiety) 3) the stranger approaches the infant and attempts to interact and play with them. (stranger anxiety) 4) the mother leaves the room so that the infant is alone with the stranger. the stranger comforts the baby if they are upset and offers to play with them. (separation anxiety & stranger anxiety) 5) the mother returns and the stranger leaves. (reunion behaviour) 6) the mother departs again leaving the baby briefly alone in the room. (separation anxiety) 7) the stranger re-enters and offers to comfort and play with the baby. (stranger anxiety) 8) the mother returns and the stranger leaves (reunion behaviour)

Question 78

how long are the strange situation episodes?

Answer 78

3 minutes

Question 79

findings of the strange situation:

Answer 79

the **reunion** behaviour of the infants showed that there were three different types of attachment: insecure-avoidant secure insecure-resistant

Question 80

findings of the strange situation: (percentages)

Answer 80

insecure-avoidant – 22% securely attached – 66% (always the most common type of attachment) insecure-resistant – 12%

Question 81

exploration behaviours: (secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant)

Answer 81

secure: -the infant explores the unfamiliar environment, returning to the mother at regular intervals and using her as a safe-base insecure-avoidant: -the infant explores the unfamiliar environment but does not return to the mother and does not use her as a safe-base insecure-resistant: -the infant does not explore the environment around them, choosing the stay close to the mother (clingy)

Question 82

separation anxiety: (secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant)

Answer 82

secure: the infant's play is seriously disrupted when the mother leaves (moderate separation anxiety) insecure-avoidant: the infant is not concerned by the mother's departure (low separation anxiety) insecure-resistant: the infant is extremely distressed and violent when the mother leaves (high separation anxiety)

Question 83

stranger anxiety: (secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant)

Answer 83

secure: the infant is wary of strangers and will move closer to the mother when she is present with the stranger (moderate stranger anxiety) insecure-avoidant: the infant is unconcerned about stranger and reacts the same towards the mother & stranger (low stranger anxiety) insecure-resistant: the infant becomes extremely distressed when the stranger goes to comfort them (eg: put arms up to be picked up & then fight to be put down again - high stranger anxiety)

Question 84

reunion behaviour: (secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant)

Answer 84

secure: the infant is pleased to see the mother, seeks proximity and is easily comforted in her presence. the child shows joy on reunion. insecure-avoidant: the infant shows little reaction upon the mothers return and often ignores her. the child does not seek proximity or show joy on reunion (avoids intimacy) insecure-resistant: the infant is not easily comforted by mother - seeks but rejects attempts of comfort by mother

Question 85

what did ainsworth argue that differences in attachment were caused by?

Answer 85

the sensitivity of the mother to the infants needs: (eg: when the infant cries does the mother respond appropriately with food, warmth, comfort etc?)

Question 86

what did ainsworth believe the mother of each attachment type was like?

Answer 86

secure: sensitive and supportive insecure-avoidant: mother rejects the child insecure-resistant: mother is inconsistent with the child

Question 87

strengths of ainsworth’s strange situation:

Answer 87

-the method of assessing attachment type is said to have high reliability -the attachment types have predictive validity

Question 88

ao3 / strength - the strange situation method of assessing attachment type is said to have high reliability

Answer 88

P - the strange situation method of assessing attachment type is said to have high reliability E - the observations took place under strict and controlled methods (including video recording) using predetermined behavioural categories ↳ since ainsworth has several observers watching and coding the same infant behaviours, agreement on attachment classifications could be ensured ↳ ainsworth et al. found 94% agreement between observers L - when inter-observer reliability is high, the findings are considered more meaningful → this means that the attachment type of the child is not just dependent on who is observing them

Question 89

ao3 / strength - there is predictive validity of attachment in the strange situation

Answer 89

P - there is predictive validity of attachment in the strange situation E - attachment type predicts later development, eg: secure infants usually have greater success at school and more lasting romantic relationships ↳ insecure-resistant attachments are associated with worse outcomes, such as bullying and mental health problems L - this is evidence for the validity of the concept of attachment types, as it can predict future outcomes

Question 90

limitations of ainsworth’s strange situation:

Answer 90

-it lacks ecological validity -overt observation -ethnocentric test

Question 91

ao3 / criticism - ainsworth’s strange situation lacks ecological validity

Answer 91

P - ainsworth’s strange situation lacks ecological validity E - ainsworth conducted her observation in a controlled, artificial setting which was unfamiliar to both the parents and the infants ↳ therefore, the children she was observing may have acted differently to how they would act in a more familiar environment, such as at home L - this means that we do not know if the behaviours displayed by children would be the same when the children aren’t in a novel environment, making ainsworth’s findings less externally valid

Question 92

ao3 / criticism - overt observation

Answer 92

P - metholodical issues as the observation was overt E - the parents in ainsworth’s study knew they were being observed through the one-way mirror and therefore may have displayed demand characteristics ↳ the mothers may have been overly affectionate as they thought this is the behaviour that the scenario demanded of them L - this could have altered the children’s behaviour and therefore lowers the internal validity of the experiment

Question 93

ao3 / criticism - the study may be ethnocentric

Answer 93

P - the strange situation may be a culture-bound test E - the test may not have the same meaning outside of western europe and the USA ↳ cultural differences in children’s experiences mean they respond differently and also caregivers may behave differently L - for example Japanese mothers are rarely separated from their infants and so infants show very high levels of separation anxiety

Question 94

what are cultural variations?

Answer 94

the differences in norms and values of people in different groups

Question 95

which differences are psychologists interested in? (attachments)

Answer 95

they are concerned with the differences in the proportions of attachment types across different cultures

Question 96

cross-cultural variations & innate / environmental attachments

Answer 96

-if bowlby’s view is true and infants have an innate tendency to attach, then we would expect to see similar patterns of attachment cross-culturally -however, if patterns of attachment differ cross-culturally then attachments may be learned from environmental cultural differences rather than biology

Question 97

what do psychologists very roughly divide cultures in the world into?

Answer 97

-individualist cultures -collectivist cultures

Question 98

what are collectivist cultures?

Answer 98

-ones which emphasises family and community above individual needs -high interdependence between people

Question 99

what are individualist cultures?

Answer 99

-ones which emphasises personal independence and achievement at the expense of group goals -strong sense of competition

Question 100

cross-cultural research into attachment:

Answer 100

-many studies have replicated ainsworth’s strange situation around the world -these were combined in a meta-analysis by a psychologist called van Ijzendoorn

Question 101

who conducted the main study into cross cultural attachment & when?

Answer 101

van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988)

Question 102

aim of the cross-cultural attachment study:

Answer 102

to investigate cross-cultural variations in attachment

Question 103

method of the cross-cultural attachment study:

Answer 103

-van Ijzendoorn & kroonenberg (1988) conducted a meta-analysis of 32 studies from eight different countries that had used ainsworth’s strange situation

Question 104

results of the cross-cultural attachment study:

Answer 104

1) secure attachment was the most common type of attachment, in all the cultures examined 2) japan (collectivist culture) showed higher levels of insecure–resistant attachment in comparison to other cultures 3) germany (an individualistic culture) showed higher levels of insecure avoidant attachment, in comparison to other cultures

Question 105

conclusions of the cross-cultural attachment study:

Answer 105

since the global trend seems to reflect the US norm of secure attachment being the most common, it adds weight to the argument that secure attachment is the optimal attachment type for healthy development

Question 106

who was the germany study conducted by & when?

Answer 106

Grossman & Grossman (1991)

Question 107

findings of germany study:

Answer 107

-Grossman & Grossman found a high proportion of ‘avoidant’ children in germany -the higher percentage of avoidant children in germany may be due more to different child rearing practices there -in germany, more children were encouraged to be independent and have greater personal distance, so they do not engage in proximity seeking -this means that the children appear to an observer to be insecurely attached but in fact they are securely attached and are just confident independent children

Question 108

who was the japan study conducted by?

Answer 108

takahashi

Question 109

findings of rural japan study:

Answer 109

-takahashi (1990) found 32% of children resistant; none avoidant -japanese infants rarely experience separation from caregiver and so were extremely distressed on being left alone (experiment stopped at this point) -this would appear to be insecure resistant behaviour but is in fact due to different child rearing practices

Question 110

strengths of cross cultural attachments

Answer 110

-meta-analysis was used

Question 111

ao3 / strength - meta-analysis used

Answer 111

P - meta-analysis’s provide a very large sample E - in the van Ijzendoorn study, nearly 2000 infants were studied L - this large sample increases the internal validity of the study as it reduces the impact of anomalous results

Question 112

criticisms of cross-cultural attachments:

Answer 112

-the samples may not be representative of cultures* -their sample was biased* -van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg’s research sample was biased

Question 113

ao3 / criticism - the samples may not be representative of cultures

Answer 113

P - the samples may not be representative of cultures E - van Ijzendoorn made comparisons between countries, not cultures ↳ within a country there are many different cultures each with different child rearing practices ↳ it was found that attachment types in urban tokyo were similar to western studies whereas a more rural study showed many resistant infants L - comparisons between countries may have little meaning as the caregiving styles need to be specified

Question 114

ao3 / criticism - their sample was biased

Answer 114

P - one weakness of van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg’s research is that their sample was biased E - 27/32 of the studies in their meta-analysis were carried out in individualistic cultures L - therefore, their results are biased towards individualistic culture norms and values so we cannot accurately generalise the results to collectivist cultures, lowering the population validity of the findings

Question 115

ao3 / criticism - there is an alternative explanation for the similarities found between cultures

Answer 115

P - there is an alternative explanation for the similarities found between cultures E - bowlby’s explanation for cultural similarities was that attachment is universal and innate and so would produce the same kind of behaviours all over the world ↳ van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg proposed an alternative possibility → small cross-cultural differences may reflect the effects of mass media ↳ many books/TV programmes are broadcast around the world and create parenting norms, so similarities in child rearing have become more common

Question 116

Sam and Dan are both twelve months old. They are observed separately in Ainsworth's Strange Situation. Sam is slightly upset when his mother leaves, but Dan is very upset and cries loudly. In the table below, identify the type of attachment suggested by the behaviour of each child.

Answer 116

Sam - secure Dan - insecure-resistant

Question 117

Sam's and Dan's behaviour was then observed when the mothers returned. Give one example of the behaviour that each child would be likely to show.

Answer 117

Sam - easily comforted at the reunion Dan - wants & asks for comfort but rejects it

Question 118

Outline one difference in attachment behaviours shown by infants who have an insecure-avoidant attachment and infants who have an insecure-resistant attachment.

Answer 118

Infants with insecure-avoidant attachment don’t care when their primary caregiver leaves (have low separation anxiety), but infants with insecure-resistant attachments get extremely agitated and volatile (high separation anxiety)