Attack and Escape Behaviours

Question 1

What makes males more aggressive and violent than women?

Answer 1

Higher levels of testosterone

Question 2

What is serotonin turnover?

Answer 2

the balance between making and using up serotonin in your brain

Question 3

What behaviour does low serotonin turnover result in?

Answer 3

increased aggressive behaviour in males

Question 4

What happens if serotonin turnover is high or low? (2)

Answer 4

High - the brain is making and using serotonin a lot

Low - the brain isn’t making or using up serotonin as much

Question 5

What is low serotonin activity observed in? (3)

Answer 5

Violent behaviour and crime
Violent suicides
Depression

Question 6

What are the hormones involved in the Triple Imbalance Hypothesis?

Answer 6

Low cortisol levels
Low 5-HT (serotonin)
High testosterone

Question 7

What does reduced serotonin and enhanced dopamine & norepinephrine result in? (3)

Answer 7

Cortical lesion (trauma or tumor)
Decreased cortical volume
Orbitofrontal cortex processing inefficiency

Question 8

What does reduced GABA and enhanced glutamate & acetylcholine result in? (3)

Answer 8

Hyperactivity
Reduced amygdala volume
Emotional hypersensitivity

Question 9

What is the amygdala’s role in aggressive behaviour?

Answer 9

when stimulated can trigger aggressive reactions

its dysfunction is associated with an increase in aggression

Question 10

What are examples of humans’ psychological capacity for free will? (4)

Answer 10

Imagining a range of alternatives

Perceiving moral features of our actions

Making decisions that align with values

Controlling behaviour against competing impulses

Question 11

What is free will?

Answer 11

Being authors of our actions and deserving credit/blame for them

Question 12

Define fear

Answer 12

A response to one’s perception of immediate danger

Question 13

Define anxiety (biological & psychological definitions) (2)

Answer 13

An increase in the startle reflex, followed by a sense of dread/apprehension/uneasiness

Excessive, exaggerated worry about everyday life events with no obvious reasons for worry

Question 14

What are the clinical symptoms of anxiety? (4)

Answer 14

Excessive, ongoing worry
Unrealistic view of problems
Decreased self efficacy
Concentration and memory impairment

Question 15

What is concentration and memory impairment caused by?

Answer 15

Prolonged effect of cortisol on the hippocampus

Question 16

What are some physical symptoms of anxiety? (6)

Answer 16

Muscle tension
Sweating
Gastrointestinal problems
Fatigue or insomnia
Trembling
Nausea

Question 17

What is preparedness?

Answer 17

A concept developed to explain why certain associations are learned more readily than others

Question 18

Give an example to explain how the startle (moro) reflex works (4)

Answer 18

1. Loud noise occurs
2. Auditory information goes to the cochlear nucleus in the brain medulla
3. The medulla stimulates the pons
4. The pons commands tensing of muscles

Question 19

How can the startle reflex be enhanced? (2)

Answer 19

If the person is already tense
In conditioned or learned fears

Question 20

Which organ is responsible for enhancing the startle reflex? How?

Answer 20

Amygdala

Axons extend from the amygdala to the nucleus in the pons - relaying information from pain/vision/ hearing circuits

Question 21

Explain the double pathway leading to the amygdala (6)

Answer 21

1st pathway:

Leads directly from a frightening sensory stimulus, to the amygdala
Quick
Activates the ANS

2nd pathway:

Travels to the higher cortex first, before reaching the amygdala
Slow
Can override 1st pathway and lead to conscious feelings of fear/no fear

Question 22

Explain the pathways to the amygdala in ANIMALS

Answer 22

Different pathways, each responsible for different aspects of fear

Question 23

What are some different aspects of fear in ANIMALS? (4)

Answer 23

Fear of pain
Fear of predators
Fear of aggression from others
Avoidance of unsafe places

Question 24

Compare the animal model of fear to generalized anxiety in humans (6)

Answer 24

Animals: decreased salivation, stomach ulcers, increased startle, urination & defecation, grooming

Humans: dry mouth, upset stomach, jumpiness, frequent urination, diarrhoea, fidgeting

Question 25

What are the short term and long term (3) effects of avoidance of anxiety?

Answer 25

Short term - provides relief Long term - increases physical symptoms for anxiety, loss of confidence about coping, increased use of safety behaviours - hence contributing to anxiety

Question 26

What are the 3 distinct phases of avoidance?

Answer 26

1. Fear conditioning (pairing of neutral stimulus with aversive stimulus) 2. Avoidance learning (avoiding the aversive stimulus by responding to conditioned cue) 3. Extinction (learning the conditioned cue doesn't predict aversive stimulus - hence fear response diminishes)

Question 27

What does the dorsal striatum include? (2)

Answer 27

Caudate nucleus Putamen

Question 28

What does the ventral striatum include?

Answer 28

Nucleus accumbens Olfactory tubercle

Question 29

What are the roles of the dorsal and ventral striatum? (2)

Answer 29

Dorsal - habit formation Ventral - reward center

Question 30

How is the cycle of anxiety reversed? (4)

Answer 30

1. Confronting feared situation without safety behaviours 2. Short term increase in anxiety, followed by a decrease in physical symptoms 3. Use of coping skills - reduces anxiety 4. Greater belief in ability to control own responses

Question 31

What are the effects of a damaged amygdala in humans? (4)

Answer 31

Impaired processing of emotional stimuli Impaired ability to judge Focus on irrelevant emotional stimuli Impaired ability of recognizing emotions in faces/pictures

Question 32

What is Urbach-Wiethe disease?

Answer 32

Amygdala wastes away so no fear response is produced and traumatic events don't leave bad memories

Question 33

What is Kluver-Bucy syndrome?

Answer 33

Loss of ability to recognize the emotional importance of events

Question 34

What was the result of removing temporal lobes of monkeys? (4)

Answer 34

No fear Appetite for improper foods (e.g., rocks) Sought intercourse with unusual partners Placid when approached

Question 35

What are possible biological causes for anxiety? (3)

Answer 35

Enhanced amygdala response to fear Impairment of ventromedial PFC - hence increase in release of CCK - excitatory neuromodulator GABA deficiency - inhibitory neurotransmitter

Question 36

What is the medical treatment for anxiety?

Answer 36

Benzodiazepines (benzos) SSRI's

Question 37

What are the effects of benzodiazepines? (4)

Answer 37

Suppress influences that increase the startle reflex Induce a state of relaxation Drowsiness Memory impairments

Question 38

Give examples of benzodiazepines (5)

Answer 38

Valium (diazepam) Xanax Klonopin Librium Lorazepam

Question 39

How do benzodiazepines work? (2)

Answer 39

Agnostic effect - benzos bind to GABA receptors and facilitate the binding of GABA to the receptors - especially in the amygdala Allow more chloride ions to enter the postsynaptic neuron

Question 40

How do SSRI's work?

Answer 40

SSRI's block reuptake channels on the presynaptic neurons - so more serotonin is available at the synapse to enter the postsynaptic neuron

Question 41

Distinguish between an agnostic and antagonistic effect of drugs

Answer 41

Agnostic - bind to target receptor and produce a response (intrinsic efficacy) Antagonistic - bind to target receptor but do not produce a response (no intrinsic efficacy)

Question 42

Where are the dorsal striatum and ventral striatum located?

Answer 42

Basal ganglia

Question 43

What are the 3 types of aggression?

Answer 43

Good aggression Bad aggression Ugly aggression

Question 44

What is good aggression?

Answer 44

fighting to counter a threat - often morally justifiable

Question 45

Distinguish between bad and ugly aggression? (4)

Answer 45

Bad: rob/hurt/kill to obtain status or material goods - instrumental aggression Ugly: intrinsic enjoyment of violence - appetitive aggression