Attention Flashcards
Caleb Owens (107 cards)
1
Q
What is attention?
A
• Attention- the behavioural and cognitive process of selectively concentrating on a discrete aspect of information while ignoring other perceivable information
2
Q
What is passive attention?
A
o Passive attention- when controlled in a bottom-up way by external stimuli
3
Q
What is active attention?
A
o Active attention- when controlled in a top-down way but individual’s goals or expectation
4
Q
What is external attention?
A
o External attention- the selection and modulation of sensory information
5
Q
What is internal attention?
A
o Internal attention- the selection, modulation and maintenance of internally generated information such as task rules, responses, long-term memory or working memory
6
Q
How is focused attention studied and what information can be obtained from this?
A
o Focused or selective attention-
Auditory
Visual
Studied by:
• Presenting individuals with 2 or more stimulus inputs at the same time and instructing them to respond only to one.
Information obtained from studying focused attention-
• Tells us how effectively we can select certain inputs and avoid being distracted by non-task inputs
• Study the nature of selection process and the fate of unattended stimuli
7
Q
How is divided attention studied and what information can be obtained from this?
A
o Divided attention
Processing multiple inputs
Task performance
The effects of practice
Studied by:
• Presenting at least 2 stimulus inputs at the same time but individuals are instructed that they must attend and respond to all stimulus inputs
Information obtained from studying divided attention:
• Processing limitations and capacity of attentional mechanisms
8
Q
What are two types of attention?
A
o Focused or selective attention
o Divided attention
9
Q
What is a dichotic listening task?
A
• Dichotic listening tasks:
o Dichotic listening task- a different auditory message is presented to each ear and attention has to be directed to one message
Often accompanied with shadowing- repeating one auditory message word for word as it is presented while a secondary message is also presented
10
Q
What are two problems we face when trying to attend to one voice amongt many?
A
o Two problems when trying to attend to one voice among many
Sound segregation- has to decide which sounds belong together in one ear and which ones do not
• Hard to do because there is considerable overlap of signals from different sound sources in the cochlea
Must direct attention to sound source of interest and ignore other
11
Q
What is the locus of selection?
A
• Locus of selection- the point at which some material is accepted or selected for further processing, and some material is rejected and no longer processed
12
Q
What is an early locus of selection and who supports this view?
A
o Early locus of selection- information is selected or rejected on the basis of its physical characteristics
Cherry (1953)
Broadbent’s (1958) filter theory
13
Q
Describe Cherry’s 1953
experiments and findings on locus of selection
A
Cherry (1953)
• Wanting to find process of specifically focusing on one conversation
• Conditions of dichotic listening task with shadowing
o Simultaneous messages
o Different messages in different ears
o Different language in unattended ear
o Speech vs other sounds in unattended ear
o Similar messages in both ears but staggered
• Findings:
o Selection is possible
o Only crude information/physical characteristics from unattended ear is encoded
Sex of speaker
Speech or noise
o When voices are physically similar, they are hard to distinguish on the basis of meaning differences alone
o Very little information seemed to be extracted from the unattended message
Words are not recognised even when repeated many times
German and English switch not distinguishable
• But (Caleb’s suggestion) should have tried languages such as thai and mandarin that are extremely different
Didn’t noticed when speech were backwards
However, physical changes in voice always nearly detected
14
Q
Describe Broadbent’s filter theory and one of its downsides
A
Broadbent’s (1958) filter theory
• Multiple inputs are coded in parallel
• One is selected on the basis of its physical characteristics
o The other input remains briefly in sensory buffer and is rejected unless attended to rapidly
• Accounts for lack of processing of unattended stimuli
• Proposes an early locus of selection
• However, it has been shown that some information from the unattended ear is processed beyond the physical level
15
Q
What is the late locus of selection and who supports this view?
A
o Late locus of selection- Information is selected or rejected on the basis of more complex characteristics like its meaning
Moray 1959- switching during shadowing experiments
Conway et al. 2001
Treisman 1960 and 1964
16
Q
Describe Moray’s 1959 experiment on locus of selection and a problem with it
A
Moray 1959- switching during shadowing experiments
• Instructions to switch ears or stop presented in the unattended ear
• Few of these instructions reported or acted on (near 10%)
• But if the instructions were preceded by the listener’s name then the probability of switching was much greater (33%)
o Exhibits cocktail party effect
o But could simply be due to the fact that name before instruction lengthens the instructions
17
Q
Describe Conway et al’s 2001 findings on locus of selection
A
- Found that probability of detecting one’s own name on the unattended message depends on working memory capacity
- Found that people with low working memory capacity were more likely to hear their own name, suggesting that they are less able to control their focus of attention
- When instructed to search those high in WM capacity performed much better
18
Q
Describe Treisman’s 1960 and 1964 view and experiment
A
Treisman 1960
• Supported flexible but technically late locus of selection
• Found that dichotic listening task subjects did switch to the unattended channel if the speech made sense, but quickly switched back
o Did an experiment where two messages only made sense if continued in other ear
o Found that people shadowed the message that began in one ear and finished it through the other ear (as half of that message was in other ear)-hence rejected information based on meaning and took in the meaning of information
Treisman (1964)
• Listeners start with processing based on physical cues, syllable pattern and specific words and move onto processes based on grammatical structure and meaning. If there is insufficient processing capacity to permit full stimulus analysis, later processes are omitted
• Also argued that top-down processes are important due to breakthrough evidence- listeners performing the shadowing task sometimes say a word presented on the unattended input if the word on the unattended channel is highly probable in the context of the attended message
19
Q
Describe Treisman’s 1960 attenuation theory and what evidence it accounts for
A
• Attenuation theory
o Attenuator reduces the processing of unattended words and strengthens the processing of attended words
o Accounts for breakthroughs
o Words which are expected are more likely to be processed (priming)
20
Q
What are breakthroughs in dichotic listening tasks?
A
Breakthroughs occur when information in the unattended ear affects performance in such a way to suggest the unattended information is processed, for example when you hear your name in a conversation you are not attending to
21
Q
What do breakthroughs during dichotic listening tasks suggest and what might they be the result of?
A
- Breakthroughs suggest attentional selection selection is not strictly early, that is, information in the unattended channel is processed for more than its physical characteristics
- Breakthroughs may not be common enough however to threaten early selection theories. Some evidence suggests breakthroughs may simply be a result of attention being poorly focused (slippage) or captured by the unattended channel in which case the phenomenon does not represent strong evidence for late selection theories
22
Q
Describe Li et al’s 2001 experiment
A
o Words which are expected are more likely to be processed (priming)
Li et al (2011) asked listeners to shadow one message while distractor words were presented to the unattended ear
• Women dissatisfied with their weight made more shadowing errors than those not dissatisfied when weight related words were presented to the unattended ear
23
Q
Describe who supports the view of no (or extremely extremely late) locus of selection
A
Deutsch and Deutsch (1963)
• All stimuli are processed to a large degree, with the most important or relevant stimulus determining the response
• Selection based on importance
• Not much support for this theory
24
Q
Describe who supports a flexible view of locus of selection
A
- Johnston and Heinz (1978)
- Lavie’s load account (1995)
25
Describe Johnston and Heinz's view on locus of selection
• Selection occurs as early as possible
o Uncertainty leads to processing of irrelevant stimuli
• Task demands necessitate early selection
o When stimuli are complex, they cannot be processed at once, so selection must take place early
• Moving locus of selection based on tasks
26
Describe how the cocktail party problem may occur
Cocktail party problem-
• Physical differences are used to efficiently attend to one voice out of two
• Temporal coherence- if listeners can identify at least on distinctive feature of target voice, they can then distinguish its other sound features via temporal coherence
• Top down processes also used
• Familiarity with target voice is important
27
What is a leaky filter and what could it explain?
• Leaky filter would explain why some unattended items receive further analysis
o Leakage- filter is not very strong and is letting things through even when focused on other things
28
What is slippage and what are its effects on priming?
• But slippage is where attention suddenly shifts- switching attention
o So technically the unattended channel is attended, briefly
o Attentional shifts take about 50ms, and priming effects disappear at (and below) that point
29
Is a leaky filter or slippage more likely? Who experiences the most of them and what could it explain?
• Slippage is what happens instead of leakage
o Low working memory people experience a lot more slippage
• This might be an explanation to the ‘breakthroughs’ (people attending to meaning)- people may be slipping and hence, it could be argued that all breakthrough evidence is invalid and Broadbent’s model is the right model
30
```
What is Lavie's 1995 load account?
Describe locus of selection in:
-High perceptual load
-Low perceptual load
-High cognitive load
```
o Combines early selection assumption that perception has limited capacity and late selection assumption that perception is involuntary and cannot be shut down at will
o We are more likely to be distracted when the task we are doing has low perceptual load (as if we have spare attentional capacity which can be captured by irrelevant things);
High perceptual/visual load means that attention is unable to wander-less resources that can be captured by other things: full capacity leaves no capacity for irrelevant distractor perception
• Locus of selection is early under high perceptual load
Low perceptual load- means that locus of selection is late
• Low perceptual load: spare capacity remaining beyond the task-relevant processing spills over involuntarily to irrelevant distractor processing
o If you place a high load on attentional control/executive function, get more distractions
High cognitive load means that attention is harder to control
• When executive functions crowded, get more slippage and hence are more easily distracted
Higher working memory load during task performance results in greater distractor interference
• Irrelevant distraction is increased with higher cognitive control load
o So selection filter can be early or late depending on spare capacity
o Perceptual load is due to limited processing capacity
o Locus of selection depends on what person is doing-task load
31
What is the Yerkes-Dodson law?
• Yerkes-Dodson (1908)
o Shows the relationship between performance and arousal
o Simple task-being stressed is optimal for task as early selection filter means you filter out everything that is irrelevant
o Complex task- medium stress is optimal: still need arousal but too much stress is bad
32
Describe Norman, Bouquet and Croizet's 2014 results on pressure and performance
• Norman, Bouquet and Croizet (2014)
o Visual search task was presented either as perception training, or an assessment of intellectual ability indexed by attentional capacity
Place people under pressure while they’re doing visual search
o Pressure increased distraction caused by task related features, and reduced distraction by irrelevant features
33
Who proposed Feature integration theory and is it right?
Feature integration theory-Treisman and Gelade (1980)
| • THIS THEORY IS WRONG
34
What is visual search?
• Visual search- where a specified target is detected as rapidly as possible
35
What is feature search in terms of effort, search processes, definition and attention?
o Feature search
Effortless
Parallel
Defined by unique in one particular feature
• Feature might be a unique colour, shape or orientation
Pre-attentive search
36
What is conjunction search in terms of effort, search processes, definition and attention?
```
o Conjunction search
Effortful
Sorting out from distractors
No feature is unique
Effortful attention- need to bind feature together
Serial search
```
37
What are the 3 features of feature integration theory
• Features found faster than conjunctions
• Texture segregation easier with distinct features
o Looking for borders-divide objects into 2 distinct parts
• Illusory conjunctions
o Mistakenly combining features from two different stimuli to perceive an object that is not present
o In the absence of focused attention
38
What is feature integration theory overall?
o Two processing stages-
A fast, initial, parallel processing of basic visual features (preattentive processing)
A slow, serial process with focused attention providing the glue to form objects from the available features
39
Describe the how to read and interpret a graph of performance speed on a detection task as a function of target definition and display size (number of distractors) graph in terms of whether search is serial or parallel
• Performance speed on a detection task as a function of target definition and display size (number of distracters) graph
o If search is parallel, search speed should not be affected by number of distractors
Flat search slope- unaffected by display size
Flat search slope occurs in single-feature targets as display size increases
Flat search slope implies parallel search
o For conjunction targets, display size has an enormous effect- no flat search slope
Responding was slower and there was a large effect of display size when the target was defined by a conjunction of features- these findings suggest there was a serial processing
40
What are the problems with feature integration theory, and who found these problems?
• In feature search, the uniqueness of target is proposed to result in a parallel search but in feature search the distractors are all the same, while in conjunction search the distractors are all different-problem with experimental design (Duncan and Humphreys 1989)
• There is no clear distinction between parallel and serial searches in data, and in very large displays targets are found much faster than predicted (Wolfe 1998)
• Conjunction search may be slower simply because targets are less easy to discriminate (they share features with the distractors)
o Decision integration hypothesis (Palmer et al.2000)
41
Descrobe Duncan and Humphreys 1989 criticism of Feature integration theory
• In feature search, the uniqueness of target is proposed to result in a parallel search but in feature search the distractors are all the same, while in conjunction search the distractors are all different-problem with experimental design (Duncan and Humphreys 1989)
o Search is faster when the distractors are very similar to each other because it is easier to identify them as distractors
o There is similarity between the target and distractors- number of distractors has a large effect on time to detect even targets defined by a single feature when targets resemble distractors
o Visual search for targets defined by more than one feature is typically limited to those distractors sharing at least on of the target’s features
42
Describe Wolfe 1998 critiscism of feature integration theory
• There is no clear distinction between parallel and serial searches in data, and in very large displays targets are found much faster than predicted (Wolfe 1998)
o Looked for bimodal graph due to 2 different processes
Found a normal curve instead- no evidence of qualitative difference between the two different functions (parallel vs serial)
43
Describe Wolfe's guide search theory and its predictions regarding
T's and L's
Triple conjuction
that would be different to FIT theory and that were proven to be right
o Wolfe proposed guided search theory which uses activation maps
o THIS IS THE RIGHT THEORY
Stimulus is filtered through broadly-tuned categorical channels
Output produces feature maps with activation based on local differences (bottom-up) and task demands (top-down)
A weighted sum of these activation forms the activation map. In visual search, attention deploys limited capacity resources in order of decreasing activation
Dual-path model: there is a selective pathway of limited capacity in which objects are individually selected for recognition. There is also a non-selective pathway in which the essence of a scene is processed to help direct or guide processing within the selective pathway
Perceptual system lays map on top of each other
• Distinct- extremely high peak with low peak distractors
• Non-distinct-high peak but not too high compared to others- lots of distractors
o Guided search predicts a serial search for T’s among L’s since no useful feature maps can be employed
o Guided search predicts two parallel searches, and the two feature maps are combined for a standard conjunction (predicts faster search than FIT)
o For a triple conjunction FIT’s predicts a serial search, whereas guided search predicts a more efficient search than for simple conjunctions
44
Are pre-attentive processes innate or learned?
• Pre-attentive processes are innate and not learned
| o Pop-out is evidence for preattentive processes
45
Is automaticity innate or leared?
• Automaticity requires training and extensive learning (development of skills)
46
Describe Shiffrin and Schneider's 1977 experimental methods
• Automaticity requires training and extensive learning (development of skills)
o This is distinct from the automatic detection of targets as demonstrated by Shiffrin and Schneider (1977)
Automatic processes suffer no capacity limitations, do not require attention and are very hard to modify once learned
Subjects memorised 1-4 target letters
• Memory set (K,H,W,Z)
Searched a visual display (of size 1-4)
• Sequential displays and hammered response button when saw target
Participants decided rapidly whether any item in the visual display was the same as any item in the memory set
Consistent vs varied mapping
• Consistent mapping-consonants always targets, numbers always distractors (exactly the same targets) or vice-versa
o Participant given only consonants to memorise would know any consonant detected in the visual display must be in the memory set
• Varied mapping- targets change: numbers and consonants were both used to form the memory set and to provide distractors in the visual display
47
Describe Shiffrin and Schneider's 1977 results
Looked at search slopes
• Found that after 2100 trials of practise, got shallow search slope, but only the in the consistent mapping condition and implies parallel processing
o Develop fast decision speed not affected by memory set size or display size
o In varied mapping, got decision speed (slope) increase with memory set and display set size- therefore implying serial process: fast reaction time does not develop
• Reversing the mappings in constant mapping condition caused a huge cost in performance (1000 trials just to recover performance level at the start of the experiment)
o Automatic processes are inflexible, which disrupts performance when conditions change
48
Describe the enormous problems with the Shiffrin and Schneider experiment
Thought they had study of automaticity, and this paper is wrongly used to prove automaticity in social psychology, when it’s just looking at letters
Problems with their experiment:
• No external validity
• Consistent mapping conditions consisted of letters and numbers as distinct target/distractor groups
o No counterbalance- all targets are angular consonants whilst all distractors were curly numbers
o Perceptual issue confound
• Search slopes were never completely flat-things have sped up but cost of processing items has never reached 0
o Hence spoils parallel search theory
49
Describe features of automatic processes, and if they have been proven to be false, how they have been so
Fast
Parallel
• Flat search slope claim is not fully explained by instance theory other than memory retrieval reducing time to complete the task
o Explains why search slopes are shallower and never fully flat
Do not draw on central capacity
• One memory trace doesn’t draw much on central capacity-Logan’s instance theory
Unavailable to consciousness
• Alternate explanation: Cerebellum type issue- procedural tasks cannot easily be verbalised
• Consciousness was never adequately assessed Newell and Shanks (2014) critiqued Nisbett and Wilson 1977 study
o 3 articles of clothing on a shelf in a shop
o Participants tend to choose the ones in the far right
o When asked why they chose that one, they would say because it’s the nicest piece of clothing
They didn’t know they were choosing the ones on the right- thought it was an unconscious process
o But Newell and Shanks (2014) found they weren’t picking the one on the right
Going left to right and doing serial comparison and picking the last one
Unavoidable
• Stroop Effect (word vs colour printed in) has proven this wrong
• Capture errors are not completely obligatory-just slow down for cognitive processes
Effortless
• Less effort instead of effortless
Insulated
• A skilled typist will stop on the letter, the novice typist will carry on to the end of the word when asked to stop
• Skilled behaviour is about more control, not less
50
Describe what theories of automatic processes Shiffrin and Schneider kickstarted
Reason (1990) and Moors and De Houwer (2006)
51
Describe Reason's 1990 errors caused by automatic processes
Reason 1990- errors caused by automatic processes (but further research says that most of these things aren’t automatic at all- they’re just not encoded properly)
• Capture errors- it is hard to deviate from a routine
o Assumption that routine is automatic
• Omissions- interruption of a routine causes a step to be missed
• Perseverations- repeating a routine action
• Descriptions- correct action, wrong object
• Data-driven- response dictated by outside source
• Associative-activation errors- expectations trigger wrong routine
• Loss-of-activation errors- forget what they are doing in a specific place
52
Describe Moors and De Houwer (2006) description of automaticity
Features of automaticity-Moors and De Houwer (2006)
• Rejected Shiffrin and Schneider’s 1977 assumption that there is a clear-cut distinction between automatic and controlled processes
• Four features are associated with automatic processes but are not always found together
o Fast
o Efficient
o Goal-unrelated
o Unconscious
• A continuum between automatic and non-automatic -features are continuous rather than all or none
o Can make relative statements about automaticity
53
Describe Cheng's 1985 description of automaticity
• Cheng (1985)
o Skill is not about doing things faster, it’s about restructuring the task (changing the task itself): skill is not automatic
o E.g. skill in cognitive arithmetic involves direct recall
54
Describe the principle of Logan's 1988 instance theory of automaticity
o Automaticity is memory retrieval
o Assumes that task practice leads to storage of information in long-term memory, facilitating subsequent performance on that task
o Novice performance is limited by a lack of knowledge rather than a lack of resources
55
What are the assumptions of Logan's 1988 instance theory of automaticity
o Assumptions-
Separate memory traces are stored each time a stimulus is responded to
Repeated exposure means more memory traces
More memory traces means faster retrieval and less effortful processing -chances of getting response back sooner when there’s more memory traces
56
According to Logan's instance theory of automaticity, why are "automatic" processes fast?
• Automatic processes are fast because they require only the retrieval of past solutions from long-term memory
57
According to Logan's instance theory of automaticity, why are "automatic" processes less effortful?
• Make few demands on attentional resources because the retrieval of heavily over-learned information is relatively effortless
58
According to Logan's instance theory of automaticity, why are "automatic" processes not consciously aware
• No conscious awareness of automatic processes are no significant processes intervene between presentation of a stimulus and retrieval of the appropriate response
59
What does Logan's instance theory of automaticity not predict in the traditional featurs of automaticity
just faster and smoother behaviour-does not predict most traditional lists of automatic processing features (but most of these aren’t true anyways so it doesn’t matter)
Capture errors not completely obligatory
• Predicts more control not less
Lack of awareness due to inability to verbalize task
Driving and other self-paced task are not performed in parallel
o Logan’s instance theory only predicts the fast feature of automatic processes
60
Describe Logan and Crump's 2009 research on typists
• Logan and Crump (2009) asked skilled typists to only type the right hand letters from each word-and this was incredibly disruptive
o This required attention to be shifted from the outer to the inner loop
An outer loop selects words (from thoughts or vision)
• Attention beneficial here
An inner loop turns those words into finger movements
• Motor control of hands and fingers translates words into movements
• Attention here disrupts transfer of information
o And the outer loop clearly doesn’t know what the inner loop is doing
61
Describe Logan and Crump's 2010 findings of inner and outer loop in typing
• Then Logan and Crump (2010) inserted random errors into output when person typed, or when typist made an error, sometimes randomly corrected it
o When errors were inserted, typists’ fingers did not slow, but consciously typists took credit for the errors
Outer loop is aware of error but inner loop isn’t, but still typist thought they made an error
o When errors were corrected, typists’ fingers slowed down, but consciously typists were unaware of errors
Inner loop noticed an error was made but outer loop didn’t- typist was not aware of errors
o Processes are operating at two different levels
Some subsets of a skill are ballistic
62
What is the psychological refractory period effect?
o PRP (Psychological refractory period effect)-when the second stimulus is presented very shortly after the first one, there is typically a marked slowing of the response to the second stimulus
63
What 3 successive stages does task performance involve?
o Task performance involves 3 successive stages:
Perceptual
Central
Motor
64
What is dual task performance?
• Dual task performance-doing two things at once and hence have to share attentional resources
65
Describe pashler 1998's findings and hypothesis on dual task performance
• Poorer performance suggests both tasks draw from a common pool of resources
o Pashler 1998-
One stimulus attended -> faster processing as resources not shared
Capacity sharing-> when two stimuli are attended, processing resources are divided, resulting in slower processing
66
What is the attention operating characteristic curve?
Attention operating characteristic curve-depending on how much attention you give a task, if you don’t give full attention to a task you perform less well at it
67
Describe Wickens' intferrence about dual task performance
• Less interference when tasks use different stimulus and response modalities (Wickens 1984)
o Wickens inferred a multiple resource pool
68
What are different theories of dual task performance and who supports them?
o Capacity theories- graded sharing of a single pool (Kahneman 1973) or multiple resources (Wickens 1984)
o Bottleneck (single channel theory): (Craik 1947) +Pashler PRP paradigm
o Crosstalk and task similarity (e.g. outcome conflict- Navon and Miller 1987)
o Neural theories (Kinsbourne 1981)
69
What are capacity theories and what evidence are they supported by?
o Capacity theories- graded sharing of a single pool (Kahneman 1973) or multiple resources (Wickens 1984)
Assume processing is parallel, and allocation of resources can be varied at will
• In dual task paradigms, participants can give different percentages of attention consciously to different tasks
70
What is the bottleneck theory and what is an example of a paradigm within this theory? Is this theory still compatible with the attention operating characteristic curve?
```
o Bottleneck (single channel theory): queuing and rapid shifting between tasks because of serial processing (Craik 1947)
Bottleneck-> only do 1 thing at a time but switch between things rapidly
This theory is still compatible with the AOC curve- explanation becomes that people are switching back and forth between tasks at a different rate, instead of dividing attentional resources
Pashler’s PRP paradigm
```
71
Describe Pashler's PRP paradigm and his results
Pashler’s PRP paradigm
• Dual speeded responses to two tasks which overlap-stimulus 1 is presented, and stimulus 2 is presented between stimulus 1 perception and response at different stages
o Response to the second task is slowed depending on when the second stimulus is presented
When short stimulus-onset asynchrony, there is a delay in reaction time
• As SOA is reduced, slope often approaches -1
When long stimulus-onset asynchrony, there is no delay in reaction time
o This suggests an overlap in central stages involving decision and response selection
Found that can do perceptual analysis and response production at the same time, as well as perceptual analysis/response production at the same time as central processes, but central processes CANNOT be done at the same time
72
Can the PRP effect be eliminated? Why/why not?
o Found that PRP effect is reduced but never seems to disappear with practise (Selst, Ruthruff and Johnston 1999)
But never to 0-> always need central processes to direct what we’re doing
Tasks not being done in parallel but very fast -> executive control barely noticed
Persistent effect may be due to response interference or crosstalk
o PRP effects are found with very simple tasks in different modalities
73
Is PRP evidence against capacity sharing?
o PRP is not evidence against capacity sharing (AOC) as all that is done is rapid switching
74
What is the crosstalk and similarity theory?
o Crosstalk and task similarity: limitations depend on the similarity of tasks and the information being processed (e.g. outcome conflict- Navon and Miller 1987)
Doing things that are different at the same time is easier than doing things that are the same at the same time
• This is because there is less cross-talk between different things vs similar things
75
What are neural theories of dual-task paradigms?
o Neural theories: tasks can be performed together if the structures performing them are neutrally distant (Kinsbourne 1981)
76
How is attention controlled?
• Attention is controlled by:
o Volition (endogenous)
o Drawn by the salience of stimuli outside (exogenous)
77
Describe Posner's 1980 spotlight model of attention control
```
Posner (1980)-space based attention
• Can allocate location
• Covert visual attention
o Attention without eye movements
• Spotlight model- illuminates a fairly small area, little can be seen outside the beam and can be redirected to focus on any given object
```
78
Describe Posner's 1980 experiment on his spotlight model
• Effect of valid and invalid cues
o Experiment
Told that it is in best interest to divert attention (not eyes) towards direction of arrow
Valid trial- Faster response when people know where stimulus will appear in a certain period of time
Invalid trial- cue points to wrong direction
Reaction time: cue
79
What is inhibition of return in attention and why does it occur?
o A reduced probability of visual attention returning to a previously attended location of object
o Inhibition of return predicts that 300ms or longer after a location is cued, you will be slower to respond to a stimulus in that location
o This might be because attention has evolved not to linger on one thing too long-this has dangerous implications in the wild
80
Describe Eriksen and St Jame's zoom lens model
Eriksen and St James (1986)-space based attention
• Benefit persists in the absence of distractors
• The zoom lens models
o Visual attention more flexible than spotlights
o We can deliberately increase or decrease the area of focal attention
81
Describe why sudden-onsets capture attention and how came up with this theory
Sudden-onsets are the only stimuli which capture attention (Yantis 1993). These can capture attention because of:
• Sudden change in luminance/contrast
• Sudden onsets represent the appearance of a new perceptual object (Yantis and Hillstrom 1994)-most plausible theory
o New perceptual objects require the creation of an object file (Kahneman and Treisman 1992)
82
What is an object file?
An object file is a temporary representation of the objects currently in visual awareness
• Their actual nature is disputed, but they are necessary because of the problems caused by mere activation in representation
83
What are two views of attention?
- Attention is space based
| - Attention is object based
84
Describe an experiment supporting object based attention
• Attention is object based
o Moore, Yantis and Vaughan 1998
Exogenous priming of objects
Target is same distance from cue in both invalid same object and different object conditions
So cue was primed on one object, in invalid same object it was on the same object but different part and in different object it was in a different object
Small benefit was found even though distance was controlled for
85
What is the implicit association test, what is it used for and what is a problem with it?
* Social/clinical psychologists use the IAT task and are often unaware of inhibition of return
* Evidence interpreted to imply that a particular subgroup of people have a strong attentional bias towards X kind of stimuli, may actually indicate the opposite as don’t know what the stimulus onset asynchrony is between cue and targets
86
Describe Jiang, Costello, Fang and He's experiment on attentional capture
• Jiang, Costelllo, Fang and He
o Naked images are shown to one of the eyes but quickly masked
Subconscious threshold presentation
Most do not even realise they are being shown naked pictures
o A probe afterwards will show which direction the person was paying attention in to see whether they attended towards or away from the naked image
o This corresponded well with self-reported sexuality
Heterosexual males avoid looking at naked men
Heterosexual females who were not averting their eyes at naked women
87
Describe Bressan et al's 2008 experiment and results on religion and attentional capture
o An unexpected change captures attention of religious people more than others
Two words are presented, and after a vable SOA, a dot (target) appears. In 33rd trial, for the first time, words were always white-on-black, one of the two words is unexpectedly presented in black-on-white
Strong believers were more disturbed (reaction time increase) by schema violations than weak believers (but were actually less aware of the disturbing event)
• Distinguished between religiosity based on personal experience (what they looked at), belief in paranormal aspects of religion (ignored) and religiosity not based on experience (ignored)
88
What is Bressan et al's explanation of why religious people are more disturbed by unexpected changes in paradigm?
Bressan et al’s explanation is that religious people have a stronger belief in the meaningfulness of coincidences (misunderstanding of coincidences)
• Religious people are more pattern seeking
o Susceptible to seeing patterns where there are none
89
What is the multiple object tracking paradigm?
• Items appear on screen and several flash
• Items which flashed then need to be tracked as all the items move randomly around the screen
• Multiple Object Tracking Paradigms:
o Track multiple objects at once
Limit of 4 trackable objects
90
Describe Pylyshyn's view on multiple object tracking
o Pylyshyn- parallel multiple object tracking
| Hypothesises that it is parallel
91
Describe why some people think that multiple object tracking occurs serially and why predictability is a big factor in this
o Other explanation- serial multiple object tracking
This is why the faster the multiple object tracking paradigm gets, the harder it is
• This would not be a problem if it is in parallel
• Hence, rapid switching very likely-serial process
• Prediction of where object would be is very important
o If objects are predictable, easier to track
o If objects are not predictable, might lower maximum limit of 4 as harder to track
92
Describe Yantis' view on multiple object tracking limit of 4
o Other explanation (Yantis)-single shape being morphed
| Good at transforming shapes with 4 corners, hence 4 is the limit
93
Describe the 3 theories on how we can track multiple objects at once
- Parallel
- Serial
- Single shape being morphed
94
What is inattentional blindness?
• Inattentional blindness- failure to detect an unexpected object appearing in the visual environment
95
Describe Mack and Rock's first 1998 paradigm on inattentional blindness and their results
• Mack and Rock 1998-first researchers on change blindness
o First paradigm-
Present a primary task (judging the longest of two arms in a cross for example) and then on the fourth trial present a critical stimulus within the arms
But spoilt on paradigm very quickly as there are only four trials
On first two trials, shown fixation, stimulus in the centre of field of view for 200ms , then mask
On third trial, critical new stimulus near the original stimulus, then mask
• Then asked participant if saw anything
On fourth trial, would do the same thing as third trial
• But participant already suspicious due to question and now looking for something
5000 subjects were tested over 7 years
Without attention people did not notice:
• Texture and grouping differences
• Shape
But 75% of subjects noticed
• Colour, flicker and motion
96
Describe Mack and Rock's 2nd 1998 paradigm and their results
o Second paradigm
Repeated first paradigm, but Fixation in middle, stimulus is offset and critical stimulus appears right in the middle, then mask
• Inhibition of return could have played a role in this
This increased inattentional blindness- subjects inattentional blindness double to 60-80% at fixation
Argued that objects at fixation are typically the focus of attention- however, when the task requires focusing away from fixation, attention to objects at fixation is actively inhibited
97
Describe why subjects are more likely to see their own names
• Subjects were more likely to see their own names (after Moray, 1959)
o But could be due to encoding and memory processes
o This is also suggested by people only remembering things after being asked if they noticed something different in different question formats which would have excited their memory processes
98
What does detection of unexpected objects in inattentional blindness depend on and what are 2 factors in this?
• Detection of unexpected object in inattentional blindness generally depends heavily on the probability it will attract attention. Two factors are of special importance-
o The similarity of the unexpected object to task-relevant stimuli
o The observer’s available processing resources
99
What is change blindness?
* Change blindness-failure to detect various changes in the visual environment
* Using the world as an outside memory
* Large changes unnoticed after a blank
* Works so long as the general story of the scene is not changed
100
What is change blindness blindness?
• Change blindness blindness- the tendency of observers to overestimate greatly the extent to which they can detect visual changes and so avoid change blindness
101
Why is a blank or eye saccade required in change blindness?
o Blank wipes out motion cues -look at reaction times from 10-30 seconds before see the change
102
Describe what change blindness shows about human attention
• Have illusion of completeness
o Shows how little we encode if not important or not expected
o Involves memory so that pre-change and pos-change stimuli can be compared
o Can occur when we don’t compare pre- and post- image to each other
• Perceptual accuracy may be sacrificed to some extent so that we have a continuous, stable perception of our visual environment
103
When is change detection in change blindness better?
• Change detection is better when
o Changed object has been fixated prior to the change
o Attention to the to-be changed object was necessary for change detection
o Visual representations of objects must last for some time after receiving attention
o Change detection was much better when there is a change in type of object rather than token (swapping one object for something similar)
104
What are two types of change detection?
• Two types of change detection
o Sensing there has been a change without conscious awareness of which object has changed
o Seeing the object that has changed
105
What are applications of attention research?
```
• Driving
o Dashboard design, mobile phones, navigators, google glass
o Driver training, roadside distractions
o Design of road signs
• Military and aviation
o Heads up displays, vigilance tasks
• Medicine
o Pattern recognition and diagnosis
• Pain, depression, anxiety management
o Facebook/Instagram anxiety
• Security
o Information overload
```
106
Describe why we have limited cognitive resources
• Limited cognitive resources
o Limits only noticed under extreme circumstances
o An inevitable consequence of the hardware
107
Describe the selection for action theory and who is responsible for it
• Limited response abilities
o Selection for action (Allport 1989)
Conceiving what you are picking up before you are picking it up
Excessive processing creates conflict
Cannot process more than we can act on, so don’t process everything
• Will not process things we cannot act on
• Means that attention is limitation-attention is an emergent concept based on simple rules
o No attentional centre-happens as each system works relative to another
