attitudes and attitude change

Question 1

Attitude

Answer 1

is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor (Eagly & Chaiken, 1995).

Question 2

Psychological tendency…

Answer 2

refers to a state that is internal to the person, and

Question 3

Evaluating…

Answer 3

refers to all classes of evaluative responding, whether overt or covert, affective, behavioral, or cognitive.

Question 4

Affective

Answer 4

feelings, emotions, moods, sympathetic nervous system activity

Question 5

Behavioral

Answer 5

actions, behaviors

Question 6

Cognitive

Answer 6

thoughts, ideas, beliefs, cognition, knowledge, opinions, information, inferences

Question 7

self-report measures

Answer 7

1. likert scale

2. semantic differential scale

Question 8

Likert scale

Answer 8

agree/disagree

Question 9

Charles Osgood’s Semantic differential scale

Answer 9

focused on connotative meaning
7-point scale with adj at both anchors
3 dimensions:
1. evaluative factor (good-bad)
2. potency factor (strong-weak)
3. activity factor (active-passive)

Question 10

physiological measure

Answer 10

1. Galvanic skin response

2. facial electromyogram

Question 11

Galvanic Skin Response

Answer 11

arousal > sweat > increase the conductivity of skin

tell us intensity only but not direction

Question 12

facial electromyogram

Answer 12

happy > greater EMG activity in depressor and zygomatic muscles
measure direction and intensity

Question 13

zygomatic muscles

Answer 13

zygomaticus major:
Elevates and draws angle of mouth laterally

Zygomaticus Minor:
Elevates and everts upper lip

Question 14

depressor

Answer 14

DEPRESSOR ANGULI ORIS
Depresses and draws angle of mouth laterally

DEPRESSOR LABII INFERIORIS
Depresses and draws lower lip laterally

Question 15

Duchenne smile

Answer 15

Non-Duchenne involves only zygomatic major muscle which raises corners of the
mouth

Duchenne Smile involves contraction of both zygomatic major muscle and orbicularis oculi muscle which raises the cheeks and forms crow’s feet around the eyes

Question 16

unobtrusive measurement

Answer 16

random response technique

Question 16

persuasion

Answer 16

dual processing models:
Petty and Cacioppo’s elaboration likelihood model
Chaiken’s heuristics systematic model

Hovland’s paradigm of attitude change

Question 17

Petty and Cacioppo’s elaboration likelihood model

Answer 17

Theory:
Specifies conditions that stimulate message-related thinking
Postulates alternative peripheral cues mechanisms when those conditions are not met

Assumptions:
Validity seeking
­but extent and nature of processing depends on motivation and ability to process message

Question 18

Central processing

Answer 18

­Argument based
­
Stable, resistant to changes, link with behavior better

IF the recipient is MOTIVATED AND has the ABILITY to PROCESS the MESSAGE, then
­if argument is strong, recipient will be persuaded
­if argument is weak, recipient will not be persuaded or will experience a boomerang effect

IF the recipient is MOTIVATED AND has the ABILITY to THINK about the ISSUE, then
­if message is pro-attitudinal, recipient will be persuaded
if message is counter-attitudinal, recipient will not be persuaded or will experience a boomerang effect

Question 19

Peripheral processing

Answer 19

Mechanisms that results in persuasion in the absence of argument scrutiny
­
Less stable, less resistant to change, and does not link with behavior well

Question 20

CHAIKEN’S HEURISTIC-SYSTEMATIC MODEL

Answer 20

Assumption
­Validity seeking
­
But extent and nature of processing depends on Efficiency and Sufficiency
­Whatever the process employed, it must produce “valid” attitudes that the individual is confident of

Question 21

Systematic processing

Answer 21

Careful, thoughtful analysis of the relevant information

Question 22

Heuristics processing

Answer 22

Base on cognitive heuristics—simple rules of thumb—rather than careful analysis
­
Heuristics simplify processing by providing assumptions or rules that allow us to make rapid judgments
­E.g., “Experts give good advice”, “The majority is usually correct”, “Statistics don’t lie

Question 23

Principles of Efficiency

Answer 23

use the most efficient processing
mode, i.e., by default use heuristic
processing

Recipients under time pressure favor heuristic processing
­demand higher efficiency

Question 24

Principles of Sufficiency

Answer 24

need to be sufficiently confident about the validity of the resultant attitude Recipients who know the attitude object well favor systematic processing ­demand higher confidence in their resulting attitude

Question 25

EFFICIENCY + SUFFICIENCY = | CONFIDENCE

Answer 25

``` Combining the two principles: 1. engage in heuristics processing first 2a. if heuristics processing alone generates enough confidence, systematic processing is not necessary 2b. if heuristics processing alone does NOT generate enough confidence, use systematic processing ```

Question 26

Situational or individual differences

Answer 26

distraction (heuristic), low need for cognition (heuristic), high ability (systematic), high accountability (systematic)

Question 27

HOVLAND'S PARADIGM OF ATTITUDE CHANGE

Answer 27

Who says What? How? to Whom?

Question 28

Counter-argumentation

Answer 28

the central element in determining attitude change ­an internal debate that provides an alternative position and supports it Counter-arguing is an important component of reactance, as has been shown by Rains (2013). If people are confronted with a message that (overtly) intends to persuade them, they feel threatened in their freedom to act (Brehm, 1966). This feeling may lead to reactance, a motivational state in which people try to re-establish their freedom. As a result, they are more on guard and more resistant to attitude change (Wood and Quinn, 2003).

Question 29

Who?

Answer 29

Credibility ­ Trustworthiness ­ Expertise Attractiveness Single vs. Multiple sources ­ multiple sources even more effective when ­ arguments are strong conveying different arguments

Question 30

Says what?

Answer 30

Drawing conclusion ­ best for complex messages One-sided vs. two sided ­ best if target is knowledgeable Fear arousal ­ interacts with chronic fear arousal

Question 31

HOW?

Answer 31

Distraction ­ helps weak arguments ­ interferes comprehension of strong arguments Overhearing ­ source becomes more credible

Question 32

to Whom?

Answer 32

Intelligence ­ For messages lacking supportive arguments, high intelligence people were less persuaded than low intelligence people ­ For messages including complex argumentation, persuasion and retention of message content was greater for high intelligence people self-esteem medium: most easily persuaded low-esteem people are too distracted and withdrawn to receive the message high self-esteem people yield less to the message because they are especially confident of their own opinions

Question 33

self-esteem

Answer 33

an inverted U-shape relation ­ Message recipients with high levels of self-esteem receive (i.e., attend to and comprehend) more of the message than those low in self-esteem; low-esteem people are too distracted and withdrawn to receive the message. ­ Recipients high (vs. low) in self-esteem yield less to the message because they are especially confident of their own opinions. ­ The combination of reception and yielding processes results in a curvilinear relation between individual attributes and influence such that recipients possessing middle self-esteem levels are easier to influence than those possessing high or low levels. ­ Low self-esteem recipients demonstrate little reception; high self-esteem recipients demonstrate little yielding

Question 34

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY | FESTINGER, 1957

Answer 34

Two cognitions or cognition and behavior are incongruent Incongruent in cognitions or such leads to discomfort/dissonance Resolve dissonance by modifying one of the cognitions or behavior ­ behavior cannot be undone, thus changing cognition

Question 35

LIMITING CONDITIONS OF COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

Answer 35

Freedom of choice ­ Without choice, a person can justify his/her counter-att behavior Commitment ­ Commitment makes one cognition resistant to change Aversive consequences ­ Bring about a situation that one would rather not have occurred. Personal Responsibility ­ Diffusion of responsibility reduces dissonance/att-change

Question 36

WEAK ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOR LINK

Question 37

THEORY OF REASONED ACTION

Answer 37

``` Behavioral intention ­ Attitudes towards behavior ­ Behavioral beliefs ­ Evaluation of the consequences ­ Subjective norm ­ Normative beliefs ­ Motivation to comply ```

Question 38

Behavioral belief

Answer 38

Belief that the behavior leads to certain outcomes

Question 39

Evaluation of the consequences

Question 40

Normative beliefs

Answer 40

Beliefs that specific referents think I should or should not perform the behavior

Question 41

Motivation to comply with the specific referents

Question 42

Perceived Behavioral Control

Answer 42

people's perceptions of their ability to perform a given behavior.