Prejudice

Question 1

Intergroup Attitudes

Answer 1

Reacting to others differently because of their category membership
Cognitive → stereotype
Affective → prejudice
Behavioral → discrimination

Question 2

discrimination

Answer 2

behavior

Discrimination should always be treated with caution

discrimination against sexual minorities
discrimination on the basis of physical and mental handicap

Question 3

Prejudice

Answer 3

Unfavourable attitude towards a social group and its members

serious problem when it is associated with dehumanisation of an outgroup

Intergroup attitudes: affective

prejudice may go undetected, prejudice can be expressed in many indirect and subtle ways

A tight correspondence between knowing and believing occurs only among people who are highly prejudiced

Question 4

genocide

Answer 4

The ultimate expression of prejudice by exterminating an

entire social group

Question 5

stereotypes

Answer 5

cognitive

widely shared and simplified evaluated image of a social group and its members

Generalized beliefs about characteristics and behaviors of a group taken as a whole

Image of a typical group member

Traits that are perceived to be more common, or frequent, among members of a particular social category than among others

consensual social stereotypes

social shortcut: need these stereotypes to guide us behave in different social context

Question 6

Minimal group paradigm

Answer 6

Mere classification of individuals into arbitrary groups results in discrimination, although
◦ there are no interactions between groups
◦ there is no history of intergroup conflict
◦ individuals’ identities are unknown
◦ there is no self-interest involved

When participants are asked to make allocations between two other individuals, participants would allocate …
◦ equally between the two individuals if …
◦ category membership of the two individuals are not known, or
◦ both individuals belong to the same group
When participants are asked to make allocations between two other individuals, participants would allocate …
◦ differently if the two individuals belong to different groups
◦ Specifically, the participant would allocate more to the individual who is in the same group as the participant
When participants are asked to allocate rewards according to performance between own group and another group, participants would use …
◦ an equity rule if own group performs better than another group (so that own group will get more than another group)
◦ an equality rule if own group performs worse than another group (so that own group will not get less than another group)
*doing anything to maximise group’s interest

Question 7

Theory of category accentuation

Answer 7

the proposition that classification of items produces encoding biases, that is, that individuals tend to exaggerate (accentuate) the similarities among items placed in the same category and the differences among items placed in different categories

Once we impose categories, we judge items …
◦ within same categories are perceived as more similar and homogeneous–assimilation
◦ in different categories are perceived as more different and heterogeneous–contrast

Question 8

gender

Answer 8

sex-stereotypical attributes of a person

Question 9

bias

Answer 9

tend to think that an individual have all the characteristics of that social group

Question 10

racism

Answer 10

prejudice and discrimination against people based on their ethnicity or race

Question 11

aversive / modern / symbolic / regressive / ambivalent racism

Answer 11

people experience a conflict between, on the one hand, deep-seated emotional antipathy towards racial outgroups, and on the other, modern egalitarian values that exert pressure to behave in a non-prejudiced manner

Question 12

detecting racism

Answer 12

unobtrusive measures > people usually behave in a socially desirable way
> automaticity: automatic cognition
> implicit association test: reaction-time test to measure attitudes - particularly unpopular attitudes that people might conceal

Question 13

ageism

Answer 13

prejudice and discrimination against people based on their age

Age-related, or generational stereotypes eg. traditionalist, baby boomers, Generation X, Millennials

Question 14

face-ism

Answer 14

media depression that gives greater prominence to the head and less prominent to the body for men but vice versa for women

Question 15

properties predicting popularity

Answer 15

1. age
2. gender
3. critical recognition

Question 16

success for different gender

Answer 16

For masculine task, male success was attributed to ability,

female success was attributed to luck or easy task

Question 17

Effect of Aging on Popularity of Male vs. Female Screen Actors

Answer 17

Male actors were found to be more popular than female actors that illustrates a gender discrepancy in the artistic profession of screen
actors:
◦ movie roles are distributed across gender have found a significant imbalance that has remained consistent over the last 70 years (Bazzini et al., 1997; Powers et al., 1993).
◦ Female actors also earn less money than their male counterparts (Markson & Taylor, 1993).
> Research on the gender-wage gap shows equivocal evidence regarding its magnitude, which likely stems from the different wage-related variables researchers include in their calculations. To examine whether pay differentials solely based on gender exist, we focused on the earnings of top performing professionals within a specific occupation to rule out productivity-related explanations for the gender-wage gap. Specifically, we investigated the interaction of gender and age on the earnings of Hollywood top movie stars. The results reveal that the average earnings per film of female movie stars increase until the age of 34 but decrease rapidly thereafter. Male movie stars’ average earnings per film reach the maximum at age 51 and remain stable after that.
◦ Although an equal number of prestigious acting awards are typically allotted to male and female actors, the movies for which female actors win these awards are less likely to receive best movie awards.
◦ Indeed, Best Actresses winners are less likely to be associated with award winning movies than even Best Supporting Actors (Simonton, 2004)
> For both measures, the effect of a male best actor award or nomination is larger that for a female best actor award or nomination
The discrepancies hold for both the lead and supporting categories

No gendered aging effects in the popularity of screen actors
◦ Popularity of both genders declined with age at a similar rate.

Question 18

Discrimination

Answer 18

Can be expressed in terms of social distance or ambivalence behaviors or feelings

social distancing

Question 19

sexism

Answer 19

prejudice and discrimination against people based on their gender

Question 20

sex / gender stereotypes

Answer 20

men and women believe that men are competent and incompetent and women are warm and expressive

Question 21

sex role

Answer 21

behaviour deemed sex-stereotypically appropriate

Question 22

Hostile Sexism

Answer 22

“Most women fail to appreciate all that men do for them.”
“Women seek to gain power by getting control over men.”
“Most women interpret innocent remarks or acts as being sexist.”

Question 23

Benevolent Sexism

Answer 23

◦ “Women should be cherished and protected by men.”
◦ “Many women have a quality of purity that few men possess.”
◦ “A good woman ought to be set on a pedestal by her man.”

Question 23

Tokenism

Answer 23

Giving trivial concession to a minority group in order to deflect accusations of discrimination

The practice of publicly making small concessions to a minority group in order to deflect accusations of prejudice and discrimination

Question 24

Reverse discrimination

Answer 24

Publicly in favor of a minority group over a majority group in order to deflect accusations of discrimination The practice of publicly being prejudiced in favour of a minority group in order to deflect accusations of prejudice and discrimination against that group

Question 25

reluctance to help

Answer 25

reluctance to help other groups to improve their position in society, by passively or actively failing to assist their efforts, is one way to make sure they remain disadvantaged

Question 26

stigma

Answer 26

Group attributes that mediate a negative social evaluation of people belonging to the group > members of stigmatised groups tend to internalise these evaluations to form an unfavourable self image that can depress self-esteem in relavant context

Question 27

stereotype threat

Answer 27

feeling that we will be judged and treated in terms of negative stereotypes of our group, and that we will inadvertently confirm the stereotypes through our behaviour

Question 28

attributional ambiguity

Answer 28

attribution processes can impact stigmatised people in a rather unusual way, via attribution ambiguity. People who are stigmatised can be very sensitive to the causes of other’s treatment of them eg. Did she serve me first because I am black? > lead to suspicion and mistrust in social interactions > Lower individuals’ self-esteem > stigmatised people often fail to take personal credit for positive outcomes

Question 29

self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 29

expectations and assumptions about a person that influence our interaction with that person and eventually change their behaviour in line with our expectations eg. experimenter primed participants to have high expectations for the performance of their platoon > After the training program, platoons with a high expectation leaders outperformed the ‘no-expectation’ counterpart

Question 30

essentialism

Answer 30

pervasive tendency to consider behaviour to reflect underlying and immutable, of an innate, properties of people of the group they belong to

Question 31

Stereotypes, Prejudice, & Discrimination

Answer 31

No perfect associations among Stereotypes, Prejudice, & Discrimination

Question 32

Realistic group conflict

Answer 32

Prejudice stems from competition between various social groups over valued commodities or opportunities (jobs, homes, status) ◦ Competition contributes to increases negativity between groups ◦ 35 year data shows correlation between bad economic conditions & incidents of violence towards blacks when economy is bad > more black lynching, because of fighting for resources lynch: kill (someone) for an alleged offence without a legal trial, especially by hanging.

Question 33

In-group bias

Answer 33

tendency to favor one's own group over others

Question 34

Out-group homogeneity

Answer 34

◦ individuals in an out-group are perceived to be more similar to each other those in an in-group ◦ (or similarly, we perceive in-group to be more heterogeneous than outgroup)

Question 35

Resolving intergroup conflict

Answer 35

1. Superordinate goals 2. Allport’s Contact hypothesis 3. Osgood’s GRIT (graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tensionreduction) ◦ One party takes the initiative to concede unilaterally, without requiring prior commitment from another party and assuming the other party will reciprocate with concession eventually *structured program is more effective in reducing prejudice

Question 36

Superordinate goals

Answer 36

shared efforts to achieve shared goals

Question 37

Allport’s Contact Hypothesis

Answer 37

``` Conditions required for contact to be effective in reducing intergroup conflict (or in-group bias). The contact should be … ◦ Of a structured contact that promotes 1. Equal status 2. A common goal 3. Cooperation ``` more contact > less prejudice facilitating conditions that enhance the tendency for positive contact outcomes to emerge > the tendency for familiarity to breed liking > Uncertainty reduction (reducing intergroup anxiety) ◦ Intergroup anxiety refers to feelings of threat and uncertainty that people experience in intergroup contexts. ◦ These feelings grow out of concerns about how they should act, how they might be perceived, and whether they will be accepted

Question 38

Effects generalized beyond people in the immediate contact environment

Answer 38

Results show that intergroup contact effects typically generalize beyond participants in the immediate contact situation. Not only do attitudes toward the immediate participants usually become more favorable, but so do attitudes toward ◦ Entire outgroup ◦ Outgroup members in other situations, and even ◦ Outgroups not involved in the contact.

Question 39

Graduated reciprocation in tension reduction (GRIT)

Answer 39

1. Be first, be nice 2. Reciprocate ~ tit-for-tat Mutual Assured Destruction: reduce the nuclear a little first > showing the intention to cooperate > wait for the other party to respond

Question 40

explanations of prejudice and discrimination

Answer 40

1. innate component to prejudice: fear of the unfamiliar and unusual > Mere exposure effect 2. learnt prejudice 3. frustration-aggression hypothesis: theory that or frustration leads to aggression, and or aggression comes from frustration used to explain prejudice and intergroup aggression scapegoat: individual or group that becomes the target for anger and frustration caused by a different individual or group or some other set of circumstances displacement collective behaviour: The behaviour of people en masse - such as in a crowd, protest or riot relative deprivation: A sense of having less than we feel entitled to 4. The authoritarian personality: personality syndrome originating in childhood that predisposes individuals to be prejudiced inc. ethnocentrism Acquiescent response set 5. Dogmatism: cognitive style that is rigid and intolerant and predisposes people to be prejudiced; and closed mindedness 6. right-wing authoritarianism conventionalism: adherence to sell societal convention that are endorsed by established authorities authoritarian aggression: support for aggression towards social deviance authoritarian submission: submission to societies established authorities 7. social dominance theory: theories that attribute prejudice to an individuals acceptance of an ideology that legitimises ingroup-serving hierarchy and domination, and rejects egalitarian ideologies System justification theory: theory that attribute social status to peoples adherence to an ideology that justifies and protect the status quo 8. Believe congruence theory: The theory that similar beliefs promote liking and social harmony among people while dissimilar beliefs produced dislike and prejudice minimal group paradigm: experimental methodology to investigate the effect of social categorisation alone on behaviour > similar > liking