Attitudes and Attitude Change

Question 1

define attitude

Answer 1

a general feeling or evaluation (positive or negative) about some person, object or issue

Question 2

what is the three component model proposed by Rosenberg & Hovland (1960) that explains what attitudes consist of?

Answer 2

ACB components

A - affective
C - cognitive
B - behavioural

Question 3

explain the affective component (Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960)

Answer 3

attitude consists of expressions of feelings towards an attitude object

e.g.: thought of eating meat makes me FEEL sick

Question 4

explain the cognitive component (Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960)

Answer 4

attitude consists of beliefs about an attitude object

e.g.: I BELIEVE it is unhealthy and wrong to eat meat

Question 5

explain the behavioural component (Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960)

Answer 5

attitude consists of overt/verbal statements concerning behaviour

e.g.: I will only eat vegetarian

Question 6

what two dimensions can attitudes be?

Answer 6

1/ simple dimension
2/ complex dimensions

Question 7

what happens to attitudes when they are complex and evaluated consistently?

Answer 7

• become stronger
• more extreme (positive or negative)

Question 8

what happens to attitudes if they are complex and evaluated inconsistently?

Answer 8

• become weaker as they become more complex

Question 9

what are the function of attitudes?
(Katz, 1960)

Answer 9

1/ knowledge function
2/ utilitarian function
3/ ego-defensive
4/ value expressive

Question 10

explain knowledge function

Answer 10

• attitudes used as a way of understanding world we live in
• having different attitudes/feelings can provide sense of meaning and cohesion

Question 11

explain utilitarian function

Answer 11

• attitude used to help achieve positive outcome and avoid negative ones
• in particular group there may be particular attitudes towards particular things
• having that particular attitude toward thing can mean no punishment/rejection from group
• positive way to act in group

Question 12

explain ego-defensive

Answer 12

• attitude used to protect one’s self-esteem from the world
• if you are able to explain world in way it makes sense to you, feel good in your group –> this impacts self-esteem
• if you believe good things and have positive attitude it will make you feel good

Question 13

explain value expressive

Answer 13

• attitude used to express one’s core values and self-concept
• used to voice particular values
• can be a view into our world
• enables us to understand the world

Question 14

where do attitudes come from?
Identify some explanations

Answer 14

• mere exposure effect
• attitudes learnt from others (social learning):
  classical conditioning, instrumental behaviour
• self-perception theory

Question 15

explain the mere exposure effect
(Robert Zajonc, 1968)

Answer 15

idea that repeated exposure to stimuli = having more favourable attitudes toward that stimuli (Zajonc, 2001)

Question 16

outline a study into the mere exposure effect
(Harrison and Zajonc, 1970)

Answer 16

• exposed ppts to novel words repeatedly (25 times)
• found exposure to that novel word = related to increased perception that they felt more favourable towards that particular word

Question 17

explain attitudes learnt from others (social learning): classical conditioning

Answer 17

• idea that repeat association between objects that are not related can elicit a positive attitude due to the positive association of one of the objects
• e.g.: Pavlov’s dogs developed positive attitude towards the bell after it being associated with food
• related to attitude, a positive association of one thing that when associated with something else elicits a positive attitude towards that thing (e.g.: celebrity endorsements)

Question 18

explain attitudes learnt from others (social learning): instrumental conditioning

Answer 18

• idea that if behaviour is followed by a positive consequence, behaviour is more likely to be repeated
• behaviour that is followed by negative consequence is less likely to be repeated

Question 19

outline study into explain attitudes learnt from others (social learning): instrumental conditioning
(Insko, 1965)

Answer 19

• ppts were rung up and asked their attitude towards particular topic
• whatever ppts said, experimenter either gave positive or negative feedback
• found that ppts reported more favourable attitudes towards topic if they had received positive feedback

Question 20

explain self-perception theory

Answer 20

• idea that we infer attitudes from our own behaviours
• how we behave, we believe is who we are
• e.g.: I read at least one novel a week –> therefore I must enjoy reading novels

Question 21

identify some ways that attitudes are measured/revealed?

Answer 21

• self - report and experimental paradigms
• physiological measures
• measures of overt behaviour

Question 22

what are some examples of self-report and experimental paradigms?

Answer 22

• attitude scales
• implicit association task
  (looks at unconscious attitudes and biases)

Question 23

what are some examples of physiological measures?

Answer 23

• skin resistance
• heart rate
• pupil dilation

how these react to particular stimuli

Question 24

what are some examples of measuring overt behaviour?

Answer 24

• frequency of behaviour
• trends and preferences over various objects
• non-verbal behaviour

Question 25

why is it important to study attitudes?

Answer 25

- attitudes predict behaviour - understanding core of self-concept

Question 26

outline LaPiere (1934) famous study on racial prejudice

Answer 26

- involved Chinese couple visited over 250 restaurants, coffee shops, hotels - they received service 95% of the time without hesitation - each place of hospitality received a letter asking if they would accept members of Chinese race - 92% responded that they would not - shows mismatch between the intention and the behaviour (maybe attitude doesn't always predict behaviour)

Question 27

identify things that impact how well attitudes predict behaviour

Answer 27

1. how strong the attitude is 2. whether attitude is formed through direct exposure 3. how attitude is measured

Question 28

explain 'how strong the attitude is' impacts how well attitude predicts behaviour

Answer 28

- if attitude is complex and consistent = strongest type of attitude --> this would predict behaviour - if attitude is complex and inconsistent = moderate type of attitude

Question 29

explain how 'whether attitude is formed through direct exposure' impacts how well attitude predicts behaviour

Answer 29

- shown that direct experience of something leads to a strong attitude (which will ultimately predict behaviour)

Question 30

explain how 'how attitude is measured' impacts how well attitude predicts behaviour

Answer 30

- how specific the questions about topic are - how we ask the question can predict behaviour - if we are very specific, may get stronger connection between attitude and behaviour

Question 31

what is the theory of planned behaviour?

Answer 31

- theory proposes people make decisions as a result of rational thought processes - behaviour is influenced by intention - intention = good indicator of behaviour - intention is influenced by 3 things: - attitude toward behaviour (+ or -) - subjective norm (social expectation around object) - perceived behavioural norm (internal - how you feel in yourself when in control, or external - whether you feel others are controlling your life) - perceived control has direct effect on behaviour - components can interact and control your behaviour

Question 32

what is cognitive dissonance? (Festinger, 1957)

Answer 32

where we have unpleasant state or tension when we have 2 or more conditions/thoughts that do not fit together

Question 33

how do we reduce the dissonance from cognitive dissonance?

Answer 33

- counter-attitudinal behaviour changing one of the components feel the discomfort/dissonance - strive to reduce dissonance reduce the dissonance by changing inconsistent cognition

Question 34

Outline Festinger (1957) study into cognitive dissonance?

Answer 34

- had ppts complete series of counting task with dice - task = very boring - told ppts to lie and tell next ppt that task = very fun - three groups of conditions - one group got no money to lie - one group got $1 to lie - one group got $20 to lie - then asked what they truly thought of experiment

Question 35

what are the findings of Festinger (1957) study into cognitive dissonance?

Answer 35

- those given $20 said they felt ok with lying - being paid $20 provides reason for lying and doing task so no dissonance is experienced - those given no money said that task was boring - those given $1 experiences dissonance and said the task was truly enjoyable - $1 is not incentive enough to lie - group experience dissonance so when they lied and said they enjoyed it, they started to believe it themselves - attitude towards task = changed

Question 36

how is dissonance reduced?

Answer 36

strategy 1 = reduce importance e.g.: i know lots of people who smoke and they haven't got lung cancer strategy 2 = add element e.g.: i need to smoke or the stress i'll suffer will be unhealthy strategy 3 = change one element e.g.: i'll stop smoking

Question 37

identify two dual-process models of persuasion

Answer 37

1/ Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) 2/ Heuristic-systematic Model

Question 38

explain the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986)

Answer 38

proposes there are two routes of thought processes 1 - central route - follow message closely - very analytical - try to read what person is saying in that argument - required high effort - leads to enduring change 2 - peripheral route - where the argument itself is not listened to - more so the cues around the article - such as attraction - requires very low effort - leads to temporary changes

Question 39

explain the heuristic-systematic model of persuasion (Chaiken, 1980)

Answer 39

proposes two pathways of processing 1 - systematic processing - follows message of argument carefully - scans for available arguments 2 - heuristic processing - looks for mental shortcuts - i.e.: stats don't lie

Question 40

identify a difference between the ELM and HSM models of persuasion processing

Answer 40

- ELM argues pathways are independent; you either look in depth of focus more on attraction - HSM argues pathways can happen together

Question 41

Identify real life ways where persuasion is used to change attitudes

Answer 41

- political campaigns - advertising/sales - encouraging socially valuable behaviours - volunteering organ donation