Social Categorisation, Stereotyping and Prejudice Flashcards
(55 cards)
1
Q
of the two identities, which elicits stereotyping?
A
social identity
2
Q
define stereotype
Hogg & Vaughan (2014, p.47)
A
a widely shared and simplified evaluative image of a social group and its members
3
Q
how are stereotypes brought about?
A
born out of the group memberships individuals have
4
Q
define category
A
collection of instances that have a family resemblance organised around a prototype
5
Q
define prototypes
A
theory that suggests there are typical defining features of a particular object
cognitive representation of typical defining features of a category
6
Q
explain what is meant by ‘categories are ‘fuzzy’, not ‘rigid’?
A
- some things can be more or less typical of a category
- all depends of the prototype
- categorisation of less typical items becomes more difficult
- categories can move about
7
Q
what do stereotypes effect?
A
- behaviour
- responses
8
Q
identify reasons as to why we categorise
A
- save cognitive energy
- clarifies and refines perception of the world
- maintain positive self-esteem
9
Q
explain ‘save cognitive energy’ as reason why we categorise
A
- categorising simplifies how we think of world
- simple = save time and cognitive processing
10
Q
explain ‘clarifies and refines perception of the world’ as reason why we categorise
A
- when category activated -> all members of that category seen as possessing those traits
- helps us predict social world
- helps reduce uncertainty
11
Q
explain ‘maintain positive self-esteem’ as reason why we categorise
A
- categorisation used as motivational function for social identity & self-concept
- because feeling more certain about world
- feel more secure in yourself, increasing self-concept
12
Q
what is the stereotype illusory correlation?
A
- explains where negative stereotypes may occur
- they occur when people wrongly pair minority groups with negative events/behaviours
- happens because they are both distinct
13
Q
outline Hamilton & Sherman (1996) study into illusory correlation
A
- asked White American ppts to estimate arrest rate of various types of American
- African Americans estimated to have a higher arrest rate than they actually did
- people inaccurately think two things are correlated
14
Q
identify some effects of stereotyping
A
- behavioural assimilation
- stereotype threat
- prejudice and discrimination
15
Q
explain behavioural assimilation
A
- occurs as effects of stereotyping
- stereotype influences our perception as well as behaviour
16
Q
explain stereotype threat
A
- effects of stereotyping
- threat of negative evaluations leads to adhering to that stereotype
17
Q
outline Behavioural Assimilation (Bargh et al., 1996)
A
- ppts asked to make sentence out of randomly ordered words
IV = two types of word types
- words associated with elderly stereotypes (e.g.: grey, old, lonely, wise)
- neutral words (unrelated to age)
DV = time taken for ppts to reach exit
ppts directed to the exit
confederate timed ppts
FINDINGS
- ppts primed with elderly words showed behaviour consistent with elderly stereotype (moved slower etc.)
18
Q
identify an issue with studies that prime stereotypes
A
don’t always replicate
19
Q
explain the issue with studies that prime stereotypes
A
don’t always replicate
- may be due to effects = not universal
- people might need to CARE about the subject being primed
20
Q
explain Papies (2015) findings into priming stereotypes
A
- found people who want to become thinner = more likely to make healthier food choices
- when primed with words on menu like ‘diet’, ‘thin’ etc.
- only works in people who’s central goal = healthy diet
- priming does not make everyone avoid fattening foods
21
Q
outline Steel & Aronson (1995) explanation of stereotype threat
A
- negative stereotypes define groups
- we behave in line with negative stereotypes of group to fit in
22
Q
how can the stereotype threat be eliminated according to Alter & al, 2010)
A
- altering perspective
- reframing low expectations as a challenge rather than threat
23
Q
define prejudice
A
- strong, highly accessible negative attitude
- dominated by cognitive bias and negative stereotypes
24
Q
define behaviours related to discrimination
A
- behaviour based on unjust treatment of certain groups
includes:
- reluctance to help
- tokenism
- reverse discrimination
25
define intergroup bias
- showing favouritism to in-group members, people most similar to you
- this breeds prejudice and negativity to those that are different
- links to discrimination towards those that are different
26
explain 'reluctance to help' as behaviours related to discrimination
(Gaetner & Dovidio, 1977)
- found ppts were more reluctant to help minority member than their own group
- when faced in emergency
- only occurred when other were present
27
explain 'tokenism' as behaviours related to discrimination
(Monin & Miller, 2001)
- process of favouring member of minority group inconsistently
- researchers found ppts who were given opportunity to hire well-qualified minority candidates = MORE WILLING to discriminate against other minorities
- because they had already 'proved' they were not prejudiced
28
explain 'reverse discrimination' as behaviours related to discrimination
(Dutton & Lake, 1973)
- openly displaying pro-minority behaviour as a way to deflect accusations of prejudice
- researchers found that those accused of prejudice gave more money to a minority member when feeling threatened
29
what did Dovidio et al. (1996) suggest about racist attitudes over the year?
- proposed a decline in racist attitudes over 60 years
30
what did Quillian & Lee (2022) suggest about racist attitudes?
- found that hiring discrimination among 170,000 applications for minority groups NOT fallen over past decade
- specific stereotypes = changed
- negativity remains
- racism seen in new modern form
31
identify the three theories of subtle prejudice
1/ modern or symbolic racism
2/ ambivalent racism
3/ ambivalent sexism
32
outline the 'modern or symbolic racism' theory of subtle prejudice
- idea that you blame the victim
- support of policies that happen to disadvantage racial minorities
- more subtle
33
outline the 'ambivalent racism' theory of subtle prejudice
- the same people scoring high scores on pro-black attitudes also score high scores on anti-black attitudes
- score high on pro-Black attitudes = pity for disadvantage
- score high on anti-Black attitudes = hostility towards those groups of people
- people having both attitudes at same time
34
outline the 'ambivalent sexism' theory of subtle prejudice
- hostile sexism sees women in very negative light
(e.g.: women seen as too easily offended)
- benevolent sexism sees women as apparently positive
(e.g.: women seen as ladylike, in the kitchen)
35
identify the 2 causes of prejudice
- historical/economical
- psychological
36
explain the historical/economical cause of prejudice
linked to the notion of frustration of aggression
37
explain the psychological cause of prejudice
- to do with individual differences in personality
- to do with group processes (difference between the in-group and the out-group)
38
explain the notion of frustration-aggression hypothesis
Dollard et al., 1939
- frustration causes aggression
- psychic energy builds up
- build up needs outlet
- find scapegoat to release frustration (e.g.: minority group)
- links to Freudian notion of 'displacement'
- when angry, we misdirect anger
- historical context = what is happening in society in that moment
39
outline the stages of the frustration-aggression hypothesis
- identification of personal goals
- psychic energy activated
- frustration of goal achieved
- source of frustration too powerful
- scapegoat found -> catharsis achieved by displacing aggression
40
apply a real life example to the frustration-aggression hypothesis
1920's/30's Germany and Anti-Semitism
personal goals
- set by leaders to achieve greatness for Germany
psychic energy activated
- emotional arousal of German people from WWI
frustration of goal achievement
- defeat by Western Allies
- treatment in Treaty of Versailles
source of frustration too powerful
- economic and political crisis
scapegoat found -> catharsis achieved by displacing aggression
- antisemitism of 1920's/30's
41
outline Hovland & Sears (1940) study into evidence for the frustration-aggression hypothesis
- study looked into cotton workers
- found over 50 year periods, the price of cotton and lynchings toward black workers
- when price of cotton fell (frustration increased), number of lynchings increased (displaced aggression)
- suggested that because we felt frustrated, they found an outlet to express anger in minority group
42
explain the psychological cause of prejudice: Authoritarian personality
- theory that some people are predisposed to be prejudiced towards minority groups
43
identify some 'Authoritarian' personality traits
- extreme reactions to authority figures
- obsession with rank and status
- tendency to displace anger
44
how is Authoritarian personality developed?
- related to childhood/upbringing
- harsh parental discipline
45
outline evidence into 'Authoritarian' personality
Adorno et al., (1950)
- conducted retrospective interviews about childhood
- ppts then had to fill out questionnaire 'F scale'
'F' scale measured:
- anti-semitism
- ethnocentrism
- political & economic conservatism
- potential for fascism (right-wing ideas)
FINDINGS:
- correlation between harshness of upbringing and measures of prejudice
46
identify issues of the 'authoritarian personality' explanation
correlational evidence
- correlation does not equal causation
poor methodology
- relies on memory of upbringing
- not all string upbringings = fascist
- self-report
ignores social context
- need to take into account history and culture
47
outline the social learning explanation for the cause of prejudice (Tajfel, 1981)
argued hatred and suspicion of certain groups = learnt early in life
48
outline evidence for social learning explanation of prejudice (Barrett & Short, 1992)
- studied English children (4-5 years old)
- these children ranked French and Spanish as most liked, followed by Italians and Germans were liked least
parental prejudices:
suggested this is due to modelling
- child witnessing expression of racial hatred towards particular group
suggested this is due to conditioning
- parent appears to approve/go along of child showing racist behaviour
49
outline the conformity explanation for psychological cause of prejudice
- conforming to group norms
- group norms = maybe more prejudiced than others
50
outline evidence for the conformity explanation for psychological cause of prejudice
(Minard, 1952)
- investigated attitudes of White miners
FOUND
- 60% readily switched between racism and non-racism
- depending on whether situational norms encouraged/discouraged prejudice
51
Explain the social identity theory
(psychological causes of prejudice: group relations theory)
- based on idea that we have social identity AND personal identity
- identity = made up of how we categorise ourselves in terms of social groups
- we can see our in-group = similar to us and out-group = different to us
- leads to in-group and out-group differences
- intergroup differentiation can lead to depersonalisation
- can lead to in-group bias
52
identify reasons social identity is important
- helps maintain self-esteem
- social bonding (findings those around you)
53
identify reasons why social identity is a problem
- there are implications for interaction with out-group members
- can lead to prejudice and stereotyping
54
outline study that looks into the role of group based differences and how it leads to prejudice
(Jane Elliot, 1968)
- aimed to highlight effects of prejudice to school children
- one day blue eyed children = inferior
- had to wear collar, lost privileges
- found that brown eyed children = very quick to derogate those with blue eyes
55
outline Akrami et al. (2011) findings into whether sexism comes from either personality, social-psychology perspective or both
- found sexism = best explained by considering both personality and social-psychology constructs
- it is necessary to integrate various approaches to explain prejudice
