Attitudes and formations

Question 1

what is an attitude?

Answer 1

An attitude is a psychological tendency expressed by evaluating something (a person, object, idea, etc.) with some degree of favor or disfavor (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993).

“A general and enduring positive or negative feeling about some person, object or issue

Essentially evaluations

Question 2

What are the three components of the Tripartite Model of Attitudes?

Answer 2

Affective, Behavioural, and Cognitive.

Question 3

Who proposed the Tripartite model of attitudes?

Answer 3

Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960

also known as the ABC model

Question 4

what are affective responses

Answer 4

feelings and emotions

eating a low fat diet makes me feel good (positive affective response)

eating a low fat diet makes me feel depressed ( negative affective response)

the affective component is about how the attitude object makes you feel.

Question 5

what are behavioural responses?

Answer 5

avert actions- How a person behaves or intends to behave toward the attitude object.

Positive behaviour: “I eat low-fat foods” (shows you have a positive attitude toward it).

Negative behaviour: “I eat high-fat foods” (suggests a negative attitude toward low-fat diets).

This part is all about what you do or plan to do in response to the attitude object.

Question 6

what are cognitive repsonses

Answer 6

A person’s beliefs, thoughts, or knowledge about the attitude object.

Beliefs are cognitive associations held in memory

Eating a low fat diet is healthy, will prevent coronary heart disease (+’ve attributes)

Eating a low fat diet is expensive and tastes awful (-’ve attribute)

Question 7

are the tripartite model of attitudes consistent with one another?

Answer 7

they can be, but they can also be inconsistent

Question 8

what can inconsistent attitudes in the tripartite model lead to?

Answer 8

Ambivalent attitudes

Question 9

example of inconsitent attitudes (tripartite model)

Answer 9

Cognitive: “Vegetables are good for my health.” (+)

Affective: “I hate the taste of vegetables.” (−)

Behavioural: “I rarely eat them.” (−)
❗ You know they’re good, but you don’t like them and don’t eat them = inconsistency between belief and action.

Question 10

what is ambivalent attitudes

Answer 10

People don’t always hold either a positive, neutral, or negative attitude towards an attitude referent

People can feel both positively and negatively about the same thing.
Not just “I like it” or “I don’t like it” — but “I like some parts but dislike others.”

responses can be inconsistent within each category-

Question 11

can components of attitudes be inconsistent with each other

Answer 11

The components of attitude can be inconsistent with each other:

Eating burgers and chips will make me fat (–’ve cognitive)
But it makes me feel good! (+’ve affective)

Question 12

Do ambivalent attitudes predict behaviour well?

Answer 12

No — they’re less consistent predictors of behaviour than univalent attitudes (Conner & Sparks, 2002).

Question 13

what are people with ambivalent attitudes likely to to tend to be

Answer 13

Be easier to persuade (Armitage & Conner, 2000)
Have attitudes that are less predictive or their behaviour (e.g. Armitage & Conner, 2000; Conner & Sparks, 2002)

Question 14

what is ambivalent sexism?

Answer 14

Ambivalent Sexism Theory (Glick & Fiske, 1996) proposes that sexism isn’t just openly hostile — it can also come in “positive” or “benevolent” forms.

Question 15

the subcomponents of ambivalent sexism

Answer 15

hostile and benevolent sexism

Question 16

what is hostile sexism

Answer 16

This involves overtly negative attitudes and stereotypes about women, viewing them as inferior to men and deserving of punishment for challenging traditional gender roles.

Women who challenge traditional roles are more likely to face hostile sexism.

Question 17

What is benevolent sexism?

Answer 17

Seemingly positive attitudes that idealize women as pure and needing protection, but that reinforce traditional gender roles.

“Women should be cherished and protected by men.”

Question 18

How does ambivalent sexism relate to ambivalent attitudes?

Answer 18

Ambivalent sexism = coexistence of hostile and benevolent sexism toward the same target: women.

People can simultaneously hold:
Negative beliefs (women are manipulative, overemotional — hostile sexism)
Positive beliefs (women are nurturing, need protection — benevolent sexism)

Question 19

limitations of the tripartite model

Answer 19

mixed empirical support- early studies using correlational analysis supported the dimensions of attitude but advanced analysis did not

Fishbein and Ajzen, 1974- suggest that a two component model (cognitive and affective) is more appropriate

One key function of attitudes is to predict behaviour.
But if behaviour is already included as a component, then any link between attitudes and behaviour is assumed, not tested.

Question 20

what are advantages of tripartite model

Answer 20

Provides a clear framework

Useful for attitude formation theories
Thoughts (cognitive), feelings (affective), and actions (behavioural)

Question 21

how are attitudes formed?

Answer 21

consistent with the tripartite model of attitudes, numerous authors have proposed that there are three types of processes by which attitudes are formed

Cognitive processes
Affective processes
Behavioural processes

Question 22

What is cognitive attitude formation?

Answer 22

Cognitive attitude formation occurs when people gain information about an attitude object (attitude referent).

direct experience- engaging physically with the object e.g., trying healthy food yourself)
- first hand

indirect experience- learning about the attributes second hand- reading or hearing about it

Question 23

what are the two experiences in cognitve attitude formation

Answer 23

direct- first hand
indirect- second hand

Question 24

What is affective attitude formation?

Answer 24

Attitudes formed through emotions and feelings, often via classical conditioning.

Question 25

What’s an example of classical conditioning in attitude formation?

Answer 25

Conditioned stimulus (CS): Cigarettes Unconditioned stimulus (US): Friends Unconditioned response (UR): Enjoyment This means: You naturally feel enjoyment when you're with friends (US → UR). If cigarettes (CS) are always present when you're with friends, you start to associate the cigarettes with enjoyment — even without the friends. Conditioned stimulus (CS): Cigarettes Conditioned response (CR): Enjoyment Now, just seeing cigarettes can trigger feelings of enjoyment, because of that learned association. This is how a positive emotional attitude toward cigarettes could be formed — even if cigarettes aren’t enjoyable on their own.

Question 26

What type of learning is associated with affective processes in attitude formation?

Answer 26

Classical conditioning — where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a positive or negative emotional response.

Question 27

What did Staats & Staats (1958) demonstrate about attitude formation?

Answer 27

They showed that attitudes can be formed through classical conditioning. Participants developed positive or negative attitudes toward nationality names (e.g., "Swedish" or "Dutch") depending on whether they were repeatedly paired with positive or negative words.

Question 28

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 28

A type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.

Question 29

How does operant conditioning relate to attitude formation?

Answer 29

Attitudes are formed through evaluative responses to stimuli, which are shaped by reinforcement (positive or negative) during interactions with the environment.

Question 30

Who proposed the link between behavioral processes and attitude formation in the context of operant conditioning?

Answer 30

Doob (1947) and Hovland et al. (1953).

Question 31

What is the role of reinforcement in attitude formation according to operant conditioning?

Answer 31

Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, thereby shaping and solidifying the attitude towards that behavior or object. behvaiour towards attitude referent: going to pub for a drink negative/positive reinforcement: approval from peers positive or negative attitude towards referent: positive attitude towards going to the pub

Question 32

who proposed the self perception theory?

Answer 32

Bem, 1972

Question 33

What is Self-Perception Theory?

Answer 33

by Bem (1972) suggesting that people infer their attitudes from their past behavior, especially when they have limited information about their attitudes.

Question 34

According to Self-Perception Theory, how do people form their attitudes?

Answer 34

People infer their attitudes based on their prior behavior, especially when they don’t have strong beliefs or information about their attitudes. I often do X…I therefore like doing X

Question 35

When do people form attitudes most readily according to Self-Perception Theory?

Answer 35

People form their attitudes more readily when their prior behavior is volitional (i.e., performed freely without external pressure or influence).

Question 36

What role do external forces play in Self-Perception Theory?

Answer 36

External forces (e.g., pressure, rewards) can influence behavior and lead people to attribute their behavior to those external factors, rather than forming an attitude from the behavior itself.

Question 37

Why does Self-Perception Theory suggest that past behavior can reveal attitudes?

Answer 37

Because when people lack clear attitudes, they turn to their behavior as a source of information to help form those attitudes.

Question 38

How do cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes relate to social contexts? (self perception theory)

Answer 38

These processes can all occur within social contexts, meaning that our attitudes and behaviors can be influenced by social interactions, groups, and societal norms.

Question 39

What is Social Learning Theory

Answer 39

Social Learning Theory suggests that individuals learn behaviors and attitudes through observation of others, especially when those behaviors are reinforced (either positively or negatively).

Question 40

who proposed the social learning theory?

Answer 40

Albert Bandura, 1977

Question 41

How does observational learning influence attitude formation in Social Learning Theory?

Answer 41

When individuals observe others' behaviors being reinforced (positively or negatively), they are likely to form similar attitudes toward those behaviors, adopting them as their own.

Question 42

What does Balance Theory propose about attitudes?

Answer 42

people are motivated to experience consistency in their attitudes toward people, objects, and behaviors.

Question 43

who proposed the balance theory?

Answer 43

(Heider, 1958)

Question 44

What does Balance Theory imply about relationships and attitudes?

Answer 44

People are motivated to hold attitudes that are consistent with those of people they like and to avoid attitudes that align with people they dislike, ensuring balance and consistency in their relationships and views.

Question 45

What is the focus of Social Identity Theory

Answer 45

individuals derive part of their self-esteem from their membership in social groups and are motivated to conform to group norms, including shared attitudes, to enhance their self-esteem. To maintain or boost self-esteem, we favor our in-group and sometimes derogate out-groups. Social categorization: Classifying people into groups. Social identification: Adopting the identity of the group. Social comparison: Comparing our group with others to boost self-esteem.

Question 46

who proposed social identity theory

Answer 46

Tajfel and turner (1979

Question 47

What is Self-Categorization Theory and its connection to attitude formation?

Answer 47

Turner et al., 1987) An extension of Social Identity Theory. People categorize themselves not only as individuals but also as members of groups, and their behavior changes depending on which identity is most salient at a given time. Depersonalization: People see themselves less as unique individuals and more as prototypical group members. Context-dependent: Different identities become active in different situations. Helps explain conformity to group norms and attitude shifts.

Question 48

How does Social Identity Theory explain attitude polarization?

Answer 48

extreme attitudes may develop within in-groups to clearly differentiate from out-groups, leading to attitude polarization (more extreme views within the group). people's attitudes toward an issue become more extreme after being exposed to information that supports their preexisting views, even if the information is relatively neutral or balanced. Hitler - propaganda to reinforce he beliefs of those who already held anti-Semitic or nationalistic view - many individuals' attitudes became more extreme, especially those who were initially moderate

Question 49

advantages and disadvantages to Social learning theory

Answer 49

Advantages: - Explains how attitudes and behaviors are learned through observing others (e.g., parents, peers, media). - `Highlights the role of reinforcement and modeling in shaping social behavior. Supported by a wide range of empirical studies (e.g., Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment). disadvantages - May overemphasize the role of environmental influence - underestimate biological or innate influences on behaviour

Question 50

advantages and disadvanarfes of social identity theory

Answer 50

Explains group-based phenomena like prejudice, discrimination, and in-group favoritism. May oversimplify identity by focusing mainly on group membership. Doesn’t account for individual differences within the same group. Doesn't explain how or why people choose specific group identities.

Question 51

advantages and disadvantages of balance theory

Answer 51

- Explains how interpersonal relationships and attitudes influence each other. - Can help predict changes in attitude to restore balance (e.g., peer pressure, liking who your friends like). - Too simplistic—real-life attitudes and relationships are often more complex than the theory allows. -Doesn’t consider emotional or unconscious processes.

Question 52

advantages and disadvantages of self perception theory

Answer 52

Explains attitude formation when internal cues are weak or ambiguous. Overlooks unconscious or automatic processes in attitude formation. Less effective in explaining strong or emotionally charged attitudes.

Question 53

Advantages and disadvantages of the social identity theory

Answer 53

Useful in understanding intergroup conflict, discrimination, and stereotyping. Shows how identity influences attitudes and behaviors in group settings. Focuses mainly on group-level processes—less detail on individual differences. Doesn’t explain how group identities form in the first place.

Question 54

advantages and disadvantages of the self categorisation theory

Answer 54

Adds flexibility to Social Identity Theory by accounting for situational factors. Useful in understanding identity salience and contextual attitude change. Still doesn’t explain where group norms originate. Can be hard to predict which identity will become salient in complex social settings.

Question 55

what is Katz (1960) functions of attitudes

Answer 55

Knowledge function Utilitarian function Value-expressive function Ego-defence function a classic model explaining why we hold certain attitudes:

Question 56

What is the Knowledge function of attitudes?

Answer 56

Helps us make sense of the world and explain by organizing and structuring information, making it easier to respond appropriately to those things E.g. If you hate (evaluation) raw fish (attitude referent) you know not to eat only sushi but also other food that contains raw fish

Question 57

What is the Utilitarian function of attitudes?

Answer 57

attitude behaviour relationship- attitudes guide behaviors in certain ways Helps gain rewards or avoid punishments. I believe that doing X [coming to lectures] will lead to rewarding consequence Y [better performance in exam], which is a good thing [positive evaluation] , I will do X [come to lectures]

Question 58

What is the Value-Expressive function of attitudes?

Answer 58

Attitudes allow us to express values and core aspects of self-concept i.e. your attitudes simply tell the world who you are Example: Supporting environmental causes to reflect eco-friendly beliefs.

Question 59

What is the Ego-Defensive function of attitudes?

Answer 59

People can adopt attitudes which help them to protect themselves from things that can threaten their self-image Protects self-esteem and defends against internal conflict. Homophobia - having strong negative attitudes towards homosexuals- allows them to outline themselves with outgroup and inlines with ingroup- maintains self esteem. Subconsciously denying their own selves

Question 60

which function in Katz model is difficult to change

Answer 60

Ego-defensive function These attitudes are deep-seated, difficult to change and hostile to the attitude referent

Question 61

What is one advantage of Katz’s functional theory of attitudes?

Answer 61

It explains why people hold certain attitudes, not just what the attitudes are — useful for understanding attitude change and persuasion.

Question 62

What is disadvantages of Katz’s functional theory?

Answer 62

Functions may overlap, making it hard to determine which one is most relevant in a given context. It over-emphasizes the individual, focusing mainly on what attitudes do for the attitude holder, and not enough on social influences or group contexts.

Question 63

How does Balance Theory (Heider, 1958) show attitudes have social functions?

Answer 63

People seek consistency in attitudes towards others and objects. We tend to like those who share our attitudes, and dislike those who don’t — promoting social harmony or tension.

Question 64

How do Social Identity Theory (Tajfel, 1982) and Self-Categorization Theory (Turner, 1987) extend Katz’s model?

Answer 64

They show that shared attitudes form the basis for group identity. Attitudes help define in-groups vs out-groups, and enable belonging and social categorisation.

Question 65

what is the bobodoll experiment and how is it related to attitude formations

Answer 65

The Bobo Doll Experiment (Bandura, 1961) is directly related to attitude formation through observational learning and the role of social influences. - Bandura's experiment demonstrated that children can form attitudes (e.g., attitudes towards aggression or violence) by observing the behavior of others. - Aggressive behaviors modeled by adults were imitated by the children, indicating that observing behaviors (and the attitudes behind them) can shape the child's own attitude towards aggression. The Bobo Doll study supports Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, which suggests that attitudes can be formed by watching others, especially in social contexts where people influence one another.

Question 66

study to support self perception theory

Answer 66

Chaiken & Baldwin (1981): Attitude Inference from Past Behaviour Participants with weak environmental attitudes were asked about past behaviours. Those reminded of pro-environmental actions rated themselves as more environmentally concerned. Those reminded of anti-environmental actions rated themselves as less concerned. ✅ Supports Self-Perception Theory: people infer attitudes from past behaviour when attitudes are unclear.

Question 67

advantages and disadvantages of self perception theory

Answer 67

Explains attitude formation without discomfort – No need for emotional conflict like in Cognitive Dissonance Theory. Supported by research – E.g., Chaiken & Baldwin (1981) Assumes people are rational observers – Doesn’t consider unconscious influences or biases. Limited to specific conditions – Works best when behaviour is voluntary and internal cues are weak.

Question 68

empirical evidence for balance theory

Answer 68

Zajonc (1968): Found that people liked others more when they shared similar opinions — supports the idea that agreement creates balance. Abelson et al. (1968): Showed that people actively work to resolve unbalanced triads (e.g., distancing themselves from disliked people who like the same things they do).

Question 69

empirical evidence for social learning theory

Answer 69

Bushman & Anderson (2002): Found that exposure to violent media increased aggressive attitudes and behaviours. → Reinforces idea that media models influence attitudes via observation. Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) – Bobo Doll Study: Children imitated aggressive behaviour after observing adults acting aggressively toward a doll. → Shows observational learning.

Question 70

empirical evidence for social identity theory

Answer 70

Tajfel et al. (1971) – Minimal Group Paradigm: Even arbitrary group assignments led boys to show ingroup favouritism (allocating more points to their group). → Shows how easily social identity can form and influence behaviour.