Atypical Gender Development: Gender Dysphoria

Question 1

Define ‘gender dysphoria’.

Answer 1

Gender dysphoria refers to the distress an individual feels when there is a mismatch between their external sex characteristics and their internal psychological identity as either male or female. Signs typically appear in early childhood, such as rejecting clothes or activities associated with their assigned gender. While this often resolves with age, for those with gender dysphoria, it persists into adulthood.

Question 2

Outline biological explanations for gender dysphoria.

Answer 2

One explanation suggests that atypical exposure to testosterone in the womb may cause gender dysphoria. Excess testosterone may masculinise the brain of female fetuses, leading to a male gender identity, while insufficient testosterone in male fetuses may feminise the brain, resulting in a female gender identity. Another explanation involves the BSTc (bed nucleus of the stria terminalis), a brain structure that differs in size between genders. Transgender individuals often have BSTc volumes that match their experienced gender rather than their biological sex.

Question 3

Evaluate biological explanations for gender dysphoria.

Answer 3

✅ A strength is supporting genetic evidence. E.g., research has found a gene variant in male-to-female transgender individuals that reduces testosterone binding, resulting in less testosterone activity and a more feminine identity.
✅ Another strength is from twin studies showing higher concordance rates for gender dysphoria in MZ twins than DZ twins, suggesting a genetic basis.
❌ However, twin studies may be confounded by shared environments rather than biology. MZ twins are more similar socially, which could influence gender development.
❌ Another limitation is difficulty establishing cause and effect for BSTc differences, which develop in adulthood, while gender dysphoria often starts in childhood. Hormone treatments could alter BSTc volume, questioning whether it’s a cause or effect.
❌ Finally, biological explanations struggle to explain temporary cases of gender dysphoria, which social factors may better account for.

Question 4

Outline social explanations for gender dysphoria.

Answer 4

Social explanations suggest gender dysphoria is learned through operant conditioning and social learning. For example, a child reinforced for cross-gender behaviour (e.g. a boy being praised for wearing a dress) may repeat it. Social learning theory suggests children imitate cross-gender behaviour observed in role models, especially in environments lacking same-sex role models (e.g. boys raised by single mothers). This may explain why gender dysphoria is more common in males.

Question 5

Evaluate social explanations for gender dysphoria.

Answer 5

✅ A strength is research showing many gender-dysphoric boys lacked stereotypical male role models, supporting the role of imitation and identification.
✅ Another strength is that more children than adults are diagnosed with gender dysphoria, which social factors can explain (e.g. adults face more social punishment for cross-gender behaviour). Biological theories can’t explain this temporary nature.
❌ However, a limitation is that gender dysphoria often persists despite bullying or punishment, which contradicts the idea it is purely learned. If it were learned, it should be unlearned via negative reinforcement. The persistence points to a biological basis.