Australia Flashcards
(300 cards)
1
Q
What is the result of Australia being mostly phylloxera free?
A
-Oldest plantings in the world
-Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, Grenache
2
Q
When was the first recorded export of Australian wines? Why?
A
-1850s
-Phylloxera outbreak, good opportunity for AUS to export, especially in UK
3
Q
What did AUS produce when focussing on domestic market?
A
-fortified wines
4
Q
When did large companies arise? what happened?
A
-1950s
-Jacob’s creek & penfolds
-Modernisation: temp. controlled stainless steel tanks
5
Q
What happened in the 1970s & 1980s ?
A
-1970s= boutique wineries
-1980s= wines exported again
6
Q
in the 1980s what was their new approach to marketing wines?
A
-stating grape varieties on label
-decription of wine on label
7
Q
What did the approach in 1980s lead to?
A
-accessible wines
-early 2000s = 5th largest exporter
8
Q
After the 2000s, plantings fell back again, why?
A
-huge oversupply: decrease in demand for inexpensive Australian wine
-2008 financial crisis: made Argentinian and Chilean wine cheaper, AUS more expensive
-prices for grapes went down, serious drought led higher costs for irrigation = growers out of business
- positive: producers focus from inexpensive to good quality, helped to maintain Australia’s position on export market
9
Q
Most vineyards lie between which latitude?
A
- 30 and 37 = intense sunlight
-Queensland & Tasmania = 41 and 42
10
Q
What is the climate of Murray Darling Basin?
A
-hot continental, no cooling influences
11
Q
Where are most grape growing areas situated?
A
-Near coast for cooling influences
12
Q
regarding topography, what about it and its cooling influences?
A
-relatively flat land
-means that there is little to stop cooling influences from ocean
-air from ocean can reach far inland
13
Q
Regarding grape growing, what do producers look for?
A
-cooler areas in mountain ranges such as: Orange, Macedon,Grampians
-lighter bodied more elegant wines
14
Q
What can be a weather hazard in cooler parts of Australia?
A
-spring frosts
-site selection to drain cold air can mitigate this effect
-wind from coast can reduce risk but… interupt fruit set
15
Q
What are 2 other weather hazards in Australia?
A
-Low rainfall = long period of drought
-Rivers of Murray Darling Basin which are vital for irrigation water have run low
-Bush fires= smoke taint
16
Q
in 2018 Australia was the … largest producers. How much hl?
A
-7th
-12.6 million hl
17
Q
What makes Australia’s environment good for grape growing?
A
-plenty of sunshine
-low rainfall
-many regions, low humidity = low disease pressure
18
Q
What happens due to a shortage of water (not rainfall)?
A
-e.g. Mclaren valley, sustainable water resource: irrigation water from recycled water for suburbs of Adelaide
-efficient irrigation systems = drip irrigation, trying to make water usage as efficient as possible
19
Q
Why is vineyard management important in Australia?
A
-due to heat and with sufficient water, vines will grow vigorously
-to ensure even ripening
-especially on fertile soils
20
Q
Which canopy systems have been used to manage vigour and ensure vine balance?
A
-Scott-henry
-Smart-dyson
21
Q
Why is mechanisation commonly practised in Australia?
A
-Most vineyards on flat, gentle slopes
-labour intensive, some vineyards far away from population, thus mechanised
-can deliver grapes asap to the winery
-easier to harvest at night
22
Q
What is a problem regarding soils? Explain
A
-Soil salinity
-Soils can get more saline due to not enough rainfall to carry away the salts deposited in irrigation water
-saline soils can make it more difficult for the vine to get to the water it needs = reduced vine growth or even death
23
Q
Which grape is most susceptible to saline soils? what can be done to prevent this?
A
-Chardonnay
-selecting suitable root stock
-changing irrigation patterns= larger volumes of water less frequently
24
Q
In which areas is Phylloxera present? What happens to prevent phylloxera?
A
-Parts of Victoria
-New South Wales
-planted on selected rootstocks, to protect against phylloxera andto combat acidity and salinity in soils
25
Why is Australia generally speaking, good for sustainable viticulture?
-warm and dry climate, low humidity, thus low disease pressure
-Sustainable Winegrowing Australia = 25% of production
26
What are the 2 natural pests in Australia? How can this be prevented?
-Kangaroos & birds
-netting = against birds but expensive
-nothing against kangaroos
27
What are the 2 most planted grape varieties in AUS?
Shiraz (25%) & Chardonnay
28
Which alternative varieties have been planted over the last couple of years?
-Mediterranean varieties
-Sangiovese, Fiano, Tempranillo, Assyrtiko
29
What style does Shiraz produce in warmer regions and in cooler regions?
-warmer regions such as Barossa and Mclaren = full-bodied, high alcohol, high but soft tannins, dark fruit, earthy and spicy, leather with age
-cooler, Yarra Valley and Grampians = less full-bodied, medium alc, less intense fruit, red and black cherry and black pepper
30
The trend for Shiraz is less intense, more approachable wine. How is this achieved?
-reducing the amount of extraction (whole bunch)
- less use of new oak = traditionally American but now also French
31
How is very good to outstanding Shiraz made?
-open fermentation tanks
-manual or mechanized punch downs for soft extraction of tannins
32
With which varieties is Shiraz commonly blended with?
-GSM blend
-Shiraz-Viognier, co-fermented for premium 'cote-rotie' style of wines (cheaper wines blended post-fermentation)
- blended with Cabernet Sauvignon to give softness and body to the wine
33
Cabernet Sauvignon is ... than Shiraz
Higher in acidity
34
What are the 2 leading areas for Cabernet Sauvignon production? what is the style produced there?
-Coonawarra: distinctive mint/eucalyptus
-Margaret river: blended with merlot, slightly riper with herbal notes
35
Name 3 regions where Pinot Noir is grown and describe its style
-Yarra Valley
-Mornington Peninsula
-Tasmania
-medium body, medium alcohol, med-high acidity
-red fruit: cherry&strawberry
36
What are winemaking techniques commonly practised for Pinot Noir?
-whole bunch fermentation for aromas
-cold maceration to enhance colour
-and fermentation with stems to add tannic structure
-Maturation in French oak common
37
What is the recognition regarding Grenache?
-used in GSM blends
-but also: quality bush vine fruit, single variety from McLaren Valley, Eden Valley, Barossa Valley
38
Describe the traditional style and modern style of Grenache
- traditionally: low acidity, high alcohol,jammy and high alcohol
-modern: greater freshness with higher acidities, lower alc, fresher red fruit
39
What winemaking techniques can be used for Grenache?
-whole bunches or stems to enhance aromas and tannin structure
-small new oak = overwhelming, thus old oak is used or large barrels for maturation
40
How is an inexpensive Chardonnay made?
-fermented in tanks
-little oak from staves, chips or old barrels previously used for higher quality wines
-can be blended with semillon, Chardonnay bringing ripe fruit to the blend
41
What is the style of high quality Chardonnay's?
-ripe fruit (citrus&peach)
-medium (+) acidity
-well-integrated oak
42
What can a winemaker do to enhance complexity, texture and balance of Chardonnay?
-ambient yeast
-leaving more solids during fermentation
-barrel fermentation and/or maturation
-lees ageing
-malo conversion in cooler regions to reduce acidity& add complexity (warmer regions not to retain acidity)
43
Where is Sauvignon Blanc planted? What price points?
-cooler regions = mid-priced
-warmer regions= inexpensive
- can range from citrus to tropical fruits
44
Where can best examples of Sauvignon Blanc be found?
-Adelaide hills
-less herbaceous than Marlborough SB
45
What are winemaking options for Sauvignon Blanc?
-Usually fermentation in Stainless Steel tanks
-lees contact or barrel fermenation in old oak to enhance texture for more full-bodied wines
46
In which region is Sauvignon Blanc blended with Semillon?
-Margaret River
-Bordeaux blend
47
What style of wine can be expected with Pinot Grigio/Pinot Gris?
-Pinot Grigio: picked early, fairly neutral veneto style
-Pinot Gris: Alsace style, picked later, fruitier more spicy and full bodied
48
Where can finest style of Pinot Gris be found?
Victoria: Mornington Peninsula & Tasmania
49
Where is Semillon famous for, why?
-Most distinctive white wine from Australia, especially Hunter Valley
-low alcohol, high acidity and unoaked
-fairly neutral when young, but great complexity with bottle ageing
50
Where is Semillon also planted? Describe its style
-Barossa Valley
- higher in alcohol, fuller-bodied and oak matured
-not as age worthy as Hunter Valley
-now picking earlier to produce lighter style with little/no oak influences
51
Where does Semillon produce sweet wines?
-Riverina in New South Wales
- affected by noble rot
52
Where are excellent Rieslings produced? Describe the style
-cooler regions: Eden Valley and Clare Valley
-Bone dry with high acidity (sometimes sweeter, late harvest styles)
-from apple to lemon, grapefruit to peach
53
What are the winemaking options when producing Riesling?
-Most fermented in Stainless Steel and sold quickly after fermentation to keep vibrant fruit and floral aromas
-premium wines: only free run juice = high in sugar and acidities and low in phenolics such as tannins
-experimentation: pre-fermentation skin contact & lees ageing to add texture and weight
54
Muscat Gordo Blanco and Colombard are used for... Where is it grown?
- inexpensive wines
-Colombard is often a neutral and cheap blending partner of Chardonnay, plantings decreasing
-Muscat also as cheap blending partner and sparkling wines
- grown in hot inland areas: Riverland, Murray Darling, Riverina
55
GIs consist of...
-Zones, regions and sub-regions
56
Which are the largest GIs? What are the rules here
-Zones
-No rules regarding drawing boundaries or shared geographic and climatic characteristics
-Can cover entire state such as South Australia and Victoria
57
What are the rules that apply to regions?
-Smaller zones, 63 in total: Coonawarra, Clare Valley etc
- min. 500 tonnes of grapes a year, across 5 different owned vineyards each of at least 5 ha
-Tasmania treated as a region, not a zone
58
How many sub-regions are there? Were are most of them located?
-14
-in Hunter Valley and Great Southern
-created to recognise areas with distinct topography, soils or climates
59
What do the different GIs mean for producers?
-range of labelling options
-Eden valley can be called Barossa,Eden Valley, Adelaide, South (eastern) Australia
60
What does it normally mean when a zone is stated on the label?
multi-regional blending of grapes
61
If the grape variety is mentioned on the label, how much % must be in the bottle?
85%
62
Which regions fall under South Eastern Australia and why is this zone created?
-Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania
-South Eastern corners of South Australia and Queensland
-to allow blending from grapes grown across the zone
63
What style of wine is produced when labelled as South Eastern Australia?
Inexpensive, high volume wines due to high yields of healthy grapes
64
Where do most grapes come used for inexpensive South Eastern Australian wines?
Murray-Darling Basin:
-Riverland (along murray in South Australia)
-Murray-Darling (near both rivers, located within both Victoria and New South Wales)
-Riverina in New South Wales
-3 largest wine producing regions by area under vine
65
What is the climate of South Eastern Australia?
-hot continental
-rivers provide some cooling influences
66
Which region within South Eastern Australia is less hot? Why?
-Riverland
-due to slight maritime influences from the coast since there are no mountains between the coast and Riverland
67
Is irrigation essential in South Eastern Australia? why or why not?
-yes, due to very low rainfall (135 mm during growing season in Riverland) and sandy soils
-water provided from rivers (although water levels lower due to drought)
68
South Eastern Australia is popular for its very big producers. Name 2
-Casella Family brands (yellow tail)
-Lindeman's in Murray Darling
69
What are the 2 main grape varieties in South Eastern Australia?
-Shiraz and Chardonnay
-but also Semillon in Riverina
70
What is the style produced in South Eastern Australia?
-Medium-bodied, high alcohol, low acidity, ripe fruit flavours
71
Which higher quality wines are produced in South Eastern Australia?
-better balanced, more complex Shiraz and Chardonnay from lower yielding vineyards
-also other varieties suited to a hot climate: petit verdot, viognier. vermentino, Nero d'avola, Montepulciano
72
Which area is famous for botrytis affected semillon? why?
-Griffith in Riverina
-dry and hot in summer but..
-autumn brings rainfall and humidity, morning mist and sunny afternoon = ideal for noble rot
-Higher quality wines, labelled with individual region's name
73
Where are the vineyards of South Australia located?
-South-Eastern corner close to the coast
-other parts too hot for viticulture
74
Barossa zone covers which two regions?
-Barossa Valley
-Eden Valley
75
What is the topography of Barossa zone?
-Barossa Valley: flat valley floor
-Eden Valley: hills to the east
76
Why is fruit commonly blended from the 2 regions within Barossa zone?
-intensity and body of wines from Barossa valley together with
-elegance and higher acidity from the cooler Eden valley
77
How many ha under vine does Barossa Valley have?
-11000
-one of the largest wine regions of Australia
78
What is the climate of Barossa Valley?
-Warm climate with hot and sunny days
-cooler nights
79
Is rainfall low or high? what does this mean in Barossa?
-Low
-Irrigation neccessary
-low disease pressure
80
What is the topography of Barossa Valley? Producing what style of wines?
- 250-370 m above sea level
-on the plain
-ripe, full-bodied red wines
-also some valley sides: cooler, slightly fresher style of wine
-sometimes the 2 types of vineyards are blended
81
What is the soil type in the Northern part of Barossa Valley? What does it do?
-ironstone layer in the soil= good water retaining capacity
-producing most age worthy wines
82
What is the training system of Barossa Valley? Name the grape varieties and what style it produces
-One of oldest bush vines of the world
-Shiraz & Grenache
-low yielding and dry farmed = outstanding and complex wines
83
What happened in the 1980s in Barossa?
-Vine pull scheme to combat over supply
-lots of old plantings of Shiraz were pulled out
84
What is the main grape variety of Barossa? What is the style?
-Shiraz
-full-bodied, high in alcohol, high soft tannins, pronounced ripe (often cooked or dried) black fruit aromas
-Many on American oak but some on French
-Some producers harvest earlier to produce a fresher, more elegant and structured style
-some harvest earlier to produce a fresher, more elegant and structured style
-can both age, softening and developing spicy, leathery aromas
85
What is the 2nd most planted variety of Barossa Valley? Describe the style
-Cabernet Sauvignon
-does better in slightly higher and cooler sites
-richer and riper in style than Coonawarra
-softer tannins and higher alcohol
86
Explain high quality chardonnay from Barossa
-full-bodied with ripe tropical fruit due to warm climate
-premium white wines: fermented and aged in French oak, also trend for unoaked
87
Which white grape variety is also planted in Barossa Valley? Describe the style
-Semillon
-higher alcohol, lower acidity and more body than hunter valley
88
What is the location and topography of Eden Valley?
-East of Barossa
-rolling, exposed hills up to 600 metres providing cooling influences
89
The higher sites in Eden valley are exposed to..
-More rain than Barossa (up to 230 mm)
-wind can disrupt fruit set
90
There are different soil types in Eden Valley but what do they have in common?Explain
-water holding capacity
-together with higher rainfall = more dry farming than in Barossa
91
Eden Valley is famous for its old vines of...
-Shiraz and Riesling
-Aslo some Grenache
92
What is the main grape variety of Eden Valley? Explain the style
-Riesling
-1/3 of plantings
-dry, high in acidity and medium alcohol
-most in stainless steel to preserve pure citrus fruit (lemon&lime) and floral aromas
- best can age: honey, nuttiness,toast
-premium wines bottle aged prior to release to add complexity
-good to outstanding, mid to premium priced
93
Describe Eden Valley Shiraz compared to Barossa Valley Shiraz
-higher acidity with more structured tannins & lower alcohol
-flavours in between warmer and cooler climate: ripe but fresh plum, blackberry aromas with sweet spices from oak
94
Where is Adelaide Hills located? Where are most vineyard plantings?
- 25 km east of the state capital
-Warmer northern part
-Now spreading to south near Mclaren Vale
95
What is the topography of Adelaide Hills?
-valley sides and steep hills (no mechanisation)
-elevation between 400 and 500 m
96
What is the climate of Adelaide Hills and what influences the climate?
- Maritime climate: relatively high rainfall (280-320 mm in growing season)
-cool to moderate temperatures vary due to altitudes and different sites
-proximity to ocean
97
When does rain tend to fall in Adelaide Hills, what does this mean?
-In winter and spring
-can disrupt fruit set
- also higher humidity due to rain and thus higher chance on fungal diseases -> spraying neccessary, some producers want to work sustainable
98
How is the rain collected in Adelaide Hills? why?
-Via dams
-To use later for irrigation
-underground sources of irrigation water also available
99
What does the variety in aspects and soils mean for grape growing in Adelaide Hills?
-low altitude west facing slopes in north = riper/full bodied varieties
-higher altitude in centre = early ripening varieties: sb,chardonnay,pn
-higher diurnal range = retention of acidities
100
What is the latitude of Adelaide Hills, what does this mean?
-low
-intense sunlight= wines riper styles than might be expected
101
What white varieties are planted in Adelaide Hills?
-Sauvignon Blanc (28%)
-Chardonnay
-also experimenting: gruner veltliner,fiano, arneis
102
Explain the style of Sauvignon Blanc in Adelaide Hills
-intense ripe fruit aromas
-high acidity, medium alcohol
-good to very good quality
-mid-priced
103
Explain the style of Chardonnay in Adelaide Hills
-Still and Sparkling
-medium body
-intense sunlight = ripe stone fruit
-malo, oak maturation & lees ageing are common = greater texture and complexity
-very good to outstanding
-mid to premium priced
104
What is the most planted black grape variety of Adelaide Hills? Explain the style
-Pinot Noir
-Most used for sparkling wines
- still: medium (+) acidity, medium body, medium alcohol, red fruit characteristics
-mid - premium priced
-delicate and floral or spicy depending on winemaker
-firmer tannins than from Victoria
105
Explain the style of Shiraz in Adelaide Hills
-much less widely planted than elsewhere
- cooler parts: medium bodied, medium to high alcohol, high levels of fine tannins,spicy and peppery notes
-warmer vineyards to the north: full-bodied, fruitier style
106
What is the location of Clare Valley?
-125 km North from Adelaide
-Northern most part of Mount Lofty Ranges
107
What is the climate of Clare Valley? What does this mean in terms of grapegrowing?
-Warm, but cooled off by afternoon breezes and cold nights
-wide diurnal range, helps grapes to retain acidities and slow ripening
108
Why does Clare Valley have different microclimates?
-shallow valley with ridges and hills having valleys running between them
109
Where do white and black grapes generally grow in Clare Valley?
-white: higher altitude, more exposed slopes
-black: lower, warmer sites
-not very steep = machine harvest possible
110
What about the rainfall in Clare Valley? What does this mean?
-250 mm during growing season
-dams to retain water for irrigation
-low rainfall = water scarcity
111
When do producers in Clare Valley choose not to use irrigation?
-To dry farm for their premium wines
-keep low yields = more concentration
112
What about fungal disease pressure in Clare Valley?
-Low due to low humidity
113
Where is Clare Valley well known for?
-Riesling
-35% of production
114
Where do growers need to protect Riesling from in Clare Valley?
-sunburn
-due to low latitude = intense sunlight
-thick canopies for shading to protect against sunburn
115
What is the style of Riesling produced in Clare Valley?
-mostly dry
-medium alcohol
-lime aromas
-higher acidity than Eden Valley
-highlights different soil types
-good to outstanding, mid to premium priced
116
What kind of Riesling does the Slate soil in polish Hill tend to produce?
-low fertility
-less aromatic, flintier style
-neutral in youth but can benefit bottle ageing: honey&toasty character
117
What style of Riesling does the limestone soils of Watervale (clare valley) tend to produce?
-more aromatic, floral style
- can be drunk when younger
118
What are the principal black grape varieties of Clare Valley? Explain the style
-Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon
-med(+) acidity and tannins
-pronounced ripe black fruit, minty/eucalyptus
-good to outstanding
-mid-priced to premium
119
Where is the Fleurieu zone located?
-South of Adelaide
-Gulf St Vincent to north and Southern Ocean to South
120
What is the climate of Fleurieu Zone? What does this mean for grapegrowing?
-warm mediterranean due to proximity to ocean
-possible to produce high yields of ripe grapes
121
What is the best-known region of Fleurieu Zone?
Mclaren Vale
122
Where is Mclaren Vale located?
-30 km south of Adelaide
-Gulf st Vincent to the west and Adelaide Hills to the east
123
What is the climate of Mclaren Vale?
-warm to hot summers
-winds from Gulf st Vincent & down from Adelaide Hills = moderating effect = disease pressure low
124
What about the rainfall in Mclaren Vale?
-low, less than 200 mm during growing season
-winters can be wet
125
How many ha of vines are planted in Mclaren Vale? What does this mean?
-7200 ha
-great diversity of microclimates
126
What infleunces the climate of Mclaren Vale?
-proximity to sea
-altitude:up to 350 m but most on flat, gentle land between 50-250 m
127
What are generally speaking the soil characteristics in the North of Mclaren Vale?
-poor, lower level of nutrients
128
What are generally speaking the soil characteristics in the South of Mclaren Vale?
-deeper, more fertile = higher yields
129
Who was the main producer in the 19th century in Mclaren Vale?
-Thomas Hardy & sons
-exporting to UK
130
What was first mainly produced in Mclaren Vale, and now?
-20th century: fortified
-1970s: full bodied chardonnay, semillon
-Now: red (make up 90% of plantings)
131
What is the quality produced in Mclaren Vale?
-from inexpensive to super-premium
132
Which grape variety is most planted in Mclaren Vale? and others? what is the style?
-Shiraz
-Also Cabernet Sauvignon and Grenache
-deep-coloured, full-bodied, high alcohol, pronounced dark fruit, spices from oak
-hotter lower sites: cooked fruits&jammy
-higher elevation: higher acidity, more structured tannins
133
Which style of wine has become more popular in Mclaren Vale?
-dry farmed, old vine grenache
-clay under sand helps with water retention
-medium tannins & acidity, med(+) body, fresh red fruit, herbal or spice
-oak avoided (overwhelms primary fruit)
-premium-priced
134
Although some old bush vines.. most vines are planted on... in Mclaren Vale
-large vineyards
-planted&trellised in such a way that machine harvest is possible
-allows to harvest at night, keeping the grapes cool
135
Why is vineyard management important in Mclaren Vale?
-Because Shiraz and Grenache are vigorous
-need to be managed, especially after wet winters, to maintain quality
136
What opportunity is there in Mclaren Vale due to low disease pressure?
-Organic and Biodynamic viticulture
-own sustainable programme: Sustainable Winegrowing Australia to improve quality/ minimise environmental impact
137
What is a feature of the sustainable programme in Mclaren Vale?
-Irrigation ( vineyards in hotter, lower areas rely on this)
-sourced from sustainable resources:dams, boreholes, recycled waste water from Adelaide
138
Where is limestone coast zone located?
-South-Eastern Corner of South Australia
139
What is the climate of limestone coast?
-Further south thus cooler
-summer days hot
-sea breezes moderate temperatures
-nights cool =
wide diurnal range
-flat area = maritime influence can reach inland
140
Where is Coonawarra located? What is its climate?
-Limestone coast
-moderate comparable to Bordeaux (maritime) but slightly warmer & drier
-100 km from coast, but flat area means cool afternoon breezes can reach far inland
-
141
What about rainfall in Coonawarra?
-Low during growing season ( around 260 mm)
- rain around flowering can affect fruit set
142
Which other factors in Coonawarra can disrupt fruit set?
Wind
143
What is another weather hazard in Coonawarra? What can be done?
- spring frost
-sprinklers
144
Is irrigation widely practised in Coonawarra?
-Yes, some dry farmed
-water sourced from underground Aquifers
145
What is the famous soiltype of Coonawarra? Explain its features
-Terra Rossa (red soil)
- free-draining iron-rich loam
-50 cm depth over hard limestone base = roots may struggle to penetrate
-restricting water access vines
-also slightly alkaline= restricts uptake nutrients
results in: less vigour, lower yields
-under hard limestone layer, soft layer, can store water used for irrigation
146
What about vineyard prices on terra rossa soils?
-High
-narrow strip of land in central core of region
147
What are other soil types in Coonawarra? Describe its characteristics
-limestone
-black clay soils
- better in water retention
-vigorous soils (particularly in wet years)
-higher yields of less concentrated grapes
148
Where is Coonawarra famous for?
-Finest Australian Red wine, especially from Cabernet Sauvignon
149
Describe the style of Cabernet Sauvignon from Coonwarra?
-medium to full bodied
-medium alc
-high firm tannins
-concentrated aromas of dark fruit (cassis to plum), mint& eucalyptus
-matured in oak = spice
150
Describe the style of Shiraz in Coonawarra
- lighter bodied than Barossa
-still concentrated blackberry and herbal, minty notes
-sometimes blended with Cabernet Sauvignon
151
What about white grapes in Coonawarra?
-only 13% of plantings
-Chardonnay & Riesling most planted
152
Describe the style of Chardonnay in Coonawarra
-ripe fruit from pear to pineapple
-good to very good quality
153
Describe the style of Riesling in Coonawarra
-fruitier and lower acidity than anywhere else from South Australia
154
What can be a major problem in Coonawarra?
-Labour due to isolated location
-past= mechanisation due to this
-recently: more migrant labour for summer pruning: green harvesting and leaf removal & hand harvesting of grapes
155
Where do most producers focus on in Victoria?
-more quality than quantity with many smaller producers = higher priced
(except from murray-darling basin'
156
What about Phylloxera in Victoria?
-Present, number of outbreaks, especially in Yarra Valley
-Morning peninsula is at risk, so strict quarantine rules
157
What does the Port Phillip zone covers?
-area around Melbourne
-Coast of port phillip bay
158
What is the climate of the Port Philip zone? Due to this, which grape varieties are grown
-proximity to sea moderates the climate, giving a cool growing season
-Altitude also has a cooling influene in some areas
-early ripening varieties: Pinot Noir & Chardonnay
-Alo shiraz & cabernet sauvignon
159
What are the regions within Port Phillip zone?
-Mornington peninsula
-Yarra Valley
-Geelong
-Macedon Ranges
160
How much ha under vine does Yarra Valley have?
2500 ha
161
What is the climate of Yarra Valley? What influences the climate?
-Cool to moderate climate
-big variation in altitude: from 50 up to 350 m
162
Yarra Valley is often split into 2 regions, name the differences between these regions
- Upper & Lower Yarra Valley
-Upper: cooler, high altitude sites in south-east
-Lower: warmer, less altitude in the north west of the region
163
What can be hazards in Yarra Valley?
-Spring frost in cooler years on valley floors
- fungal disease pressure due to high humidity (high rainfall)
164
What about the rainfall in Yarra Valley?
-1100 mm (one of the wettest regions of Australia)
-450-500 mm in growing season
165
What about the main soil types in Yarra Valley?
-Lower Yarra Valley: loamy, clay soils = low in fertility, irrigation still neccessary
-Upper Yarra Valley: deeper, more fertile volcanic soils = dry-farming possible
166
Is there more red or white wine planted in Yarra Valley? Which grape variety is dominant?
-Red, 60% of total production
-Pinot Noir half of black plantings
167
Describe the style of Pinot Noir in Yarra Valley (including maturation)
-light-med body
- lighter wines from higher altitude, cooler sites. whole bunch practised to enhance fruity aroma (strawberry, red cherry, plum)
-medium bodied: warmer sites, riper fruit
-maturation: new/old oak, preferring large foudres over barriques
-good- outstanding, mid to premium priced
168
What is the style of Chardonnay in Yarra Valley?
-white peach, melon and grapefruit
-one of the 1st regions in Australia stepping away from oaky chardonnay
-high acidity with more fruit (especially from warmer sites)
-new and used oak for fermentation/maturation (larger)
-solids in fermentation to give more flavour (smoky notes from reductive sulfur)
-lees contact to enhance texture
-malo avoided
- good to outstanding
-mid to premium priced
169
Where are Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon grown in Yarra Valley?
Lower, warmer parts
170
Describe the style of Shiraz in Yarra Valley
-medium bodied
-fresh blackberry, raspberry, plum fruit, spicy notes -> enhanced by whole bunch fermentation
171
Describe the style of Cabernet Sauvignon in Yarra Valley
-medium bodied
-herbal characteristic
-some overt oak
-best: ageing potential
-also used in blends, especially with Merlot
172
Where is Mornington Peninsula located?
-South east of Melbourne
-Narrow Peninsula with Port Phillip Bay on one side and the bass strait (which separates Tasmania from the mainland)
173
What is the climate of Mornington Peninsula?
-Cool to moderate
-windy, sunshine hours can be high but due to cooling effect of wind -> afternoon temp. relatively low
-moderating effect of water -> mild autumn conditions, extending the growing season
174
Is frost a problem in Mornington Peninsula? Explain
-Despite to cool temperatures, not a problem due to wind
175
What are advantages and disadvantages of wind in Mornington Peninsula?
-advantage: reduce risk of fungal disease, although humidity is high (but proximity to water)
-disadvantage: can inhibit flowering
176
What about the rainfall in Mornington Peninsula?
-lower than Yarra, still sufficient (320-390 mm during growing season)
-falls in winter&spring -> can therefore be a threat during harvesting & flowerinf
177
What is special about Red Hill located in Mornington Peninsula?
-Provides altitude up to 250 m (other areas within MP are relatively flat)
-Runs around the centre of the peninsula = variety of microclimates
-named after its soils: red basalt, retains winter rainfall well during growing season -> no need to irrigate
-but fertile thus vigour needs to be managed
178
What is the soil type away from Red Hill?
-free-draining clay & sand
-irrigation neccessary
179
How many ha does Mornington Peninsula have?
920 ha (low)
180
What is the main grape variety of Mornington Peninsula?
Pinot Noir (half of total harvested fruit)
181
Describe the style of Pinot Noir in Mornington Peninsula
-Red hill: light-bodied, perfumed red fruits, med(+) acidity,
-Lower vineyards: more intense and ripe with higher tannins
-cold soaking common to extract more colour
-whole bunch and stems = for more texture&complexity
-maturation: French oak, a portion may be new
-good- outstanding
-premium priced
182
What is an important white variety in Mornington Peninsula?
-Chardonnay
-30% of total plantings
183
Describe the style of Chardonnay in Mornington Peninsula
- medium bodied
- high acidity
-medium alcohol
-ranging between citrus, peach and melon
-some lees ageing and some oak ageing (small % new oak) is common to add complexity
-sometimes malo for rounder style
-good to outstanding, premium priced
184
What about land prices in Mornington Peninsula?
-High
-region also recognized for tourism: golf courses and holiday homes also competing for land
185
In terms of producers, who dominates the Mornington Peninsula?
-small wineries and vineyards
-often with cellar door activities and restaurants to promote direct-to-customer sales
186
Where is Geelong located?
-To the west of Melbourne
-with Port Phillip bay to the South-east (very close by)
187
What makes Geelong special?
Phylloxera was first discovered here
188
What is the climate of Geelong?
-Cool climate
-Port Philip Bay and Bass strait (water between Australia and Tasmania) provide moderating influences
189
What about the rainfall in Geelong?
-Lower than Yarra
-still sufficient (500-600 mm per year) falls in winter and spring
190
What is an advantage of wind in Geelong?
-reduce humidity and risk of fungal diseases
191
How many ha of vines are planted in Geelong?
-467 ha
192
Which grape varieties are widely planted in Geelong? Describe the style
-pinot noir & chardonnay
-fuller bodied and riper than yarra
-pinot noir: ripe red and sometimes black cherry, medium, soft tannins, fermented with proportion of whole bunches
-chardonnay: medium body & acidity, peach& melon
-overall: good-very good for mid to premium prices
193
Which grape variety is also planted in Geelong? Explain the style
-Shiraz
-Medium body, red&black fruit, spicy, firm tannins
194
What is the location of Macedon Ranges? how many ha are planted?
-North east of Melbourne
-215 ha (small quality focussed producers)
195
What is the topography of Macedon Ranges? How does this influence the climate?
-vineyards at altitudes between 300-800 metres
-one of the coolest Australian areas on the mainland
196
What is a weather hazard of Macedon Ranges? What is important to take into consideration?
-spring frost
-site selection important to mitigate the effects and to enhance ripening
197
What are the soils like on the hillsides of Macedon Ranges, and on lower slopes?
- shallow, granitic sandy loams = naturally reduces yields
-lower slopes: deeper loams
198
What are the main grape varieties grown in Macedon Ranges? Describe the style briefly
-Pinot Noir en Chardonnay for both still&sparkling
-Riesling: elegant, intense lemon and lime flavours
-Shiraz: distinctive black pepper, needs warmer vineyard site and relatively warm, sunny year to ripen fully
199
Which main regions can be found in Western Victoria Zone?
- Grampians and Pyrenees ( names after the ranges of hills)
-Henty ( cool climate, elegant wines)
200
What is the climate of Grampians? What influences the climate?
-moderate climate (located 130 km inland)
-temperatures moderated by altitude (240-440 metres) = wide diurnal range, helping to retain acidity
201
What about spring frost in Grampians?
-Not a big problem on slopes
-lower vineyards are at risk
202
What is the rainfall in Grampians? Is irrigation needed?
- quite low (250mm in growing season)
- irrigation not needed due to sandy, loamy soils which retain water water well
203
What about the location of the Pyrenees and its climate?
-East of Grampians
-lower, gentle slopes than Grampians = warmer
-still similar climate/soils
204
Where are Grampians/Pyrenees known for? describe the style
-Shiraz
-medium-bodied, peppery, spicy notes
-cooler, higher sites: fresh red fruit
-lower, warmer parts of Pyrenees: intense & concentrated black fruits
-good to very good, mid-priced
205
What is the climate and location of Henty?
-far south west corner of Victoria
-one of coldest mainland areas: cold antarctic winds
-lots of sunshine aiding ripening
- sea level up to 460 m
206
What is the main grape variety of Henty? Describe the style
-Riesling
-high acidity
-pronounced aromas of lmeon&lime, become toasty when bottle aged
207
What is the location of North East Victoria Zone and its climate?
-200 km inland from Melbourne
-continental
208
Where is King Valley located? How many ha are planted?
-North East Victoria Zone
-1400 ha
209
What is the climate of King Valley? What influences the climate?
- High altitude vineyards (up to 860 m, highest of Australia): cool temp, high rainfall -> disease pressure
-lower altitude: down the valley, temperatures rise, a bit moderated by river and altitude
210
What is the soil type of King Valley?
-well-draining loams, high fertility
-vigour needs to be managed
211
What style of wine do the higher sites tend to produce in comparison with lower sites in King Valley?
-high: lighter bodied whites
-low: fuller bodied red&white
212
What is King Valley known for?
-Glera grape for sparkling wines due to Italian immigrants
213
Which grape varieties is mostly planted for still white wines in King Valley? Describe the style
-Pinot Gris
-dry, light-bodied pinot grigio style
214
What about black grape varieties in King Valley?
-Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot most planted
-But.. more interest in Italian grape varieties such as Barbera, Sangiovese en Nebbiolo
215
Why are wines of King Valley difficult in export markets?
-most wines consumed domestically
-competition from Italy with more competitive prices
216
What is the altitude of Beechworth and which style of wines are produced?
-200 to 1000 metres = mesoclimates
-Chardonnay: med-bodied, med-high acidity, medium alc
-Shiraz: medium bodied, raspberry, blackberry fruit and medium firm tannins
217
What are the soils in Goulburn Valley and Bendigo? Resulting in which style?
-warm, flat plains
-ripe, full-bodied reds
- also rhone variety whites: marsanne, rousanne, viognier
218
Which part of Goulburn is cooler? producing which styles?
-Upper goulburn
-foothills of Great Dividing Range
-high quality white from Chardonnay and aromatic varieties: Riesling,Sauvignon Blanc
219
Where is heathcote located?
-In Central Victoria
-along side of Mount Carmel Range
220
What is the climate of Heathcote?
-Warm summer days
-Altitude cooling influence = higher diurnal range
-Also moderatinf effect from south wind
221
What about rainfall in Heathcote?
- 250 mm in growing season
-spread throughout the year
222
Is frost a problem in Heathcote? Why (not)?
-No due to hillside locations and wind
223
What is the soil type of Heathcote? describe its characteristics
-red calcareous soil made up from weathered greenstone
-good water retention, irrigation not neccessary, dry-farming possible
224
Which grape variety is mostly planted in Heathcote? Describe the style
-Black varieties make up 2/3 of harvested fruit
- Shiraz: Med (+) acidity (due to wide diurnal range), full-bodied, high alcohol
-pronounced ripe dark fruit (black cherry and plum) and sweet spices
- good - outstanding, mid - premium priced
225
What are the size of producers in Gippsland zone? What about its location?
-small
-family owned business
-largest zone in Victoria
226
What are the most planted varieties in Gippsland zone?
-Pinot Noir & Chardonnay
- Cabernet & Merlot or more sheltered, warm sites
227
Where is New South Wales located?
-East coast of Australia
-Sydney in this state, big populated state
-2nd largest in terms of production
228
What is the sub-tropical climate of New South Wales like?
-Pacific coast North of Sydney
-sub-tropical climate: moderate to high temperatures
-high humidity and rainfall (spread through the year)
-Hunter Valley influenced by these conditions
229
What is the climate of other regions in New South Wales?
-Great Dividing Range protects from tropical weather
-inland: continental with hot&dry days
230
What is the location and latitude of Hunter Valley & its climate?
-200 km north of Sydney
- 32-33 latitude = low, almost tropical climate = intense sunlight, afternoon clouds offer some protection to vines
- one of hottest and humid wine producing regions of Australia
- summer temp exceed 30 degrees
-relatively cool nights
231
Hunter Valley is divided into 2 regions (not officialy) name them and its location
-Lower Hunter: Nearer to Coast -> benefits from sea breezes (slightly cooler than Upper Hunter)
232
What is the topography of Hunter Valley?
Mainly low altitude hills
233
What is Hunter Valley's soil type?
Sandy loams to clay loams
234
What about rainfall in Hunter Valley? What is the risk it brings?
-Most rainfall during growing season
-up to 500 mm
- high humidity = high fungal disease pressure
-high rainfall also means irrigation is not neccessary
235
What about the harvest dates in Hunter Valley?
-warm climate = early start to ripening and chance of late summer storms means that...
-Hunter is the first region to start and finish harvesting in Australia
236
What is Hunter Valley famous for? Describe the style
-Unique style of semillon
-dry, light body, high acidity, low alcohol (10-11% abv)
-delicate citrus, neutral in youth
-can age for decades: complex and pronounced aromas of toast, honey,hay
-highest quality producers will release after 5 years of ageing
-good to outstanding quality, mid-premium priced
237
What is the winemaking process of Hunter Valley?
-Grapes picked early (to retain acidity?)
-must gently pressed, without skin contact to avoid extraction of phelonic compounds such as tannin
-fermented at moderate temperatures in ss, soon bottled, NO OAK
238
What is the style of Chardonnay produced in Hunter Valley?
-cooler sites or earlier picking: medium body, higher acidity
-riper&fuller bodied with lower acidity
-oaked as well as unoaked
239
Which high quality red wine is produced in Hunter Valley? Describe its style
-Shiraz
- medium bodied, med-high alcohol, red&black fruits,spicy notes
-matured in oak (large foudres so that oak doesnt dominate)
240
Where is the Central Ranges Zone located?
-Within New South Wales
-South from Hunter Valley
-East corner of Australia
241
Which 3 areas are located in Central Ranges Zone?
-Orange
-Mudgee
-Cowra
242
What is the climate of Mudgee?
-Although northern most part of region and next to Hunter Valley zone, harvest a month later
-Great dividing range: some protection from tropical storms = lower rainfall (during harvest)
-late summer&autumn = dry, irrigation needed
243
What is the overall climate of the Central Ranges zone?
-continental
-altitude can provide cooling influence = wide diurnal range
+ intense sunlight = grapes can fully ripen whilst retaining acidity
244
What can be a weather hazard in Central Ranges zone?
-Spring frost on higher altitude = site selection important
245
Which area is the most distinctive in the Central Ranges zone? Why?
-Orange, often labelled as orange region
-due to its altitude: 600-900 metres on slopes of Mount canobolas = old volcano
-winds can help mitigate spring frost (but also disrupt fruit set)
246
What is the soil type of Orange?
-deep red volcanic basalt soils, yellow/brown clay loams and shallow gravels
247
Which grape varieties are planted in Orange? Where?
-Black varieties: Shiraz & Cabernet Sauvignon on slightly warmer and lower slopes
-white: chardonnay & sauvignon blanc
248
Describe the style of Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon in Orange
-medium body. medium alcohol
-Shiraz: red fruit and spicy
-CS: black currant and earthy notes
249
Where are the white varieties of Orange planted? Describe the style
-higher cooler vineyards
-Chardonnay: high acidity, medium body,stone fruit and citrus, malo: practised, top wines some oak and ageing potential
-Sauvignon Blanc: high acidity and tropical fruit
250
What is the climate of Mudgee and Cowra compared to Orange? Which grape varieties are planted?
-lower, thus warmer
-Mudgee: Shiraz & CS
-Cowra: chardonnay
-riper fruit compared to Orange
251
Where is Southern New South Wales zone located?
-Inland area
-South of Sydney down to border with Victoria
252
What is the climate of Southern New South Wales?
-Continental
-sheltered from Maritime influences by range og hills and snowy mountains
-altitude = cooling influence
253
Whcih region is most well known in Southern New South Wales?
Canberra District
254
What is the climate of Canberra District? What influences the climate?
-Continental climate
-high altitude (500-850 m) = large diurnal range (warm summer days and cool nights)
-high alti = also intense sunlight which helps ripening
255
What are the weather hazards in Canberra District?
-winter&spring can be cold = spring frost
-summers dry = irrigation needed
256
Which black grape variety is mostly planted in Canberra? Describe the style
-Shiraz
-warm daytime temp,intesne sunlight and wide diurnal range leads to:
-deep colour,ripe black cherry fruit,high ripe tannins, high acidity
-Can be blended with viognier
-good to outstanding, mid to premium priced
257
Which white variety is mostly planted in Canberra district? describe the style
-Riesling
-dry wines, high acidity, delicate floral and citrus
-very good-outstanding
258
Where is Tasmania planted? How many ha of vines planted?
-250 km south of the Mainland of Australia
-separated by the bass strait (ocean)
-1700 ha
259
Where is Tasmania well known for?
-premium priced wines
-sparkling wines
-2/3 dry wines
260
What is gernally speaking the climate of Tasmania?
-cool maritime
-due to Southerly location 941-43 latitude) and prevailing winds from Southern Ocean bringing high levels of rainfall ( west coast, doesnt reach east)
-Southern is cooler than north due to latitude, some regions in south have longer sunshine hours, thus helping ripening
261
What is the aspect of vineyards in Tasmania?
-north and east to maximise sun exposure (especially in the South)
262
What about rainfall in Tasmania?
-In south and east can be dry and less humid, irrigation needed
-in north and west up to 350 mm in growing season = humidity = fungal disease
263
What is a weather hazard in Tasmania?
-Spring frosts
-Sprinklers/frost fans widely used
264
What are the 2 dominant varieties of Tasmania?
-Pinot Noir (dominant)
-Chardonnay
265
Describe the style of a Tasmanian Pinot Noir
-light to medium body
-medium (+) - high acidity, medium alcohol
-strawberry and cherry, warmer = riper style
-can be matured in oak with small proportion of new oak to not overwhelm the delicate flavours and structure
266
What is the style of a Tasmanian Chardonnay?
-medium body, medium alcohol, apple, white peach, pear
-high acidity, malo often done to soften acidity and enhance texture
-matured in old oak, sometimes proportion of new
267
What about business in Tasmania?
-Mainly domestic, little exported
-popular tourist destination, direct sales via cellar doors
-producers: tolpuddle and tamar ridge
268
What about viticulture in Western Australia?
-Most of the state is too hot for viticulture
-Swan Valley in the Greater Perth Zone = same latitude as Hunter Valley, one of hottest of Australia = high yields of ripe, inexpensive grapes
-Now: Cooler, South-Western corner where temp is moderated by ocean&altitude
269
Where is business in South West Australia focussed on?
-Small production
-premium wines
270
Where is South West Australia Zone located? Which are the 2 famous areas?
-South-Western tip of Western Australia and eastwards along the coast
-Margaret River and Great Southern
271
What is the location of Margaret River?
-The Peninsula at the very South-Western corner of Australia
-surrounded by water on 3 sides: indian ocean to North and West and Southern Ocean to the south
272
What is the climate of Margaret River and its influences?
-Warm daytime temperatures (34 latitude)
-oceans: moderate temperature, Indian Ocean is warm, temperatures do not drop much at night = longer ripening = riper fruit
-maritime influence = rarely spring frosts
273
What about rainfall in Margaret River?
-1000 mm (high), most of rain in winter
-growing season relatively dry (275 mm in summer)
274
What is the topography of Margaret river?
-relatively flat
-gentle hills&valleys
-between 40-90 metres
-low ridge runs down the centre of the region = some shelter from vineyards to the east, thus warmer conditions
275
What is the soil type in Margaret River? What does it do?
-Gravelly soils
-free-draining, irrigation is essential (water from dams which store rain during winter)
-low fertile soils = moderating vigour
276
How many ha does Margaret river have?
5700 ha
277
What is the most planted grape variety in Margaret River? Describe its style
-Cabernet Sauvignon
-often blended with merlot
-med(+) acidity, med(+)- full body,high ripe tannins
-blackberry,blackcurrant,spice
-often matured in French oak, some of which all in new
-good to outstanding, mid to super- premium priced
278
What are the key grape varieties of Margaret river?
Semillon, Chardonnay & Sauvignon Blanc
279
What is the style of Chardonnay in Margaret River?
-high acidity, med(+)- full body
-concentrated stone fruits
-malolactic conversion is blocked, only applicable in cool years
-French barrel maturation and fermentation common (sometimes new)
-sometimes lees contact to increase complexity and texture
-good to outstanding, med-premium priced
280
Describe the style of Sauvignon Blanc in Margaret River
-often blended with semillon (as in Bordeaux)
-high acidity
-grassy,herbaceous aroma, fruitiness from gooseberry to tropical fruits
-fermented in ss, some premium part/all wine fermented in barrel to add texture and depth
-good to very good, mid-priced
281
Where is the Great Southern located?
-150 km east of Margaret River
-large, covers coast & hills inland
282
Where are Albany and Denmark located? What is the climate and rainfall?
-In the Great Southern along the coast
-maritime climate
-Denmark = 350 mm rainfall
283
What about altitude in Great Southern?
-In north of Denmark, Mount Barker, Porongurup&Frankland river = more altitude up to 350 metres
284
What is the climate of Frankland River?
-more inland, less maritime influences
-more continental climate with a wide diurnal temperature range
-lower rainfall in growing season (220 m)
285
What about irrigation in Great Southern?
-Mostly dry-farmed or just minimal irrigation (except Frankland River)
286
What makes irrigation difficult in Great Southern?
- due to salinity in the soil in low lying areas
-water pumped in from further away
287
What is mostly planted in Great Southern, black or white? name the most planted grape
-Black (55%)
-Shiraz
288
Where is Shiraz most planted in Great Southern?
-Warmer areas
-Mount Barker and Frankland
289
What is the style of Shiraz in Great Southern?
-high levels of tannins and acidity
-medium to full bodied
-fresh blackberry and cherry together with herbal, peppery and spicy notes
-good to outstanding, mid to premium priced
290
Name a winemaking technique producers of Shiraz might use in the Great Southern
-proportion of whole bunch fermentation
-to enhance fruit and floral aromas
291
Which black grape variety is also planted in the Great Southern and where? Describe the style
-Cabernet Sauvignon
-Mount Barker and warmer parts of Denmark
-intense and powerful, blackcurrant and herbal notes
-cooler Porongurup: elegant, medium-bodied, savoury notes
292
What is the flagship white variety of the Great Southern? where is it planted? describe the style
-Riesling (although less planted than Sauvignon and Chardonnay)
-different microclimates but in general: high acidity with lime and floral aroma's
-Porongurup: light bodied, toasty and stony chracteristics with bottle ageing
-good-outstanding, mid priced
293
Describe the style of Sauvignon Blanc from Great Southern and where it is grown
-Single varietal (compared to blended with semillon in Margaret River)
-Albany&Denmark: highly aromatic,green herbaceous and gooseberry characteristics
294
What is the style of Chardonnay in Great Southern?
-cooler parts: melon,grapefruit, less body
-warmer parts: more full-bodied &stone fruits
-often fermented/matured in barrel and lees ageing to add complexity
295
How many wineries/vineyards have a brand in Australia? Was this more in the past, explain
-2250
-yes but small wineries stopped production and became grape growers
296
What are the 5 main wine companies of Australia?
-Accolade wines
-Casella family brands
-Treasury wine estates
-Pernod Ricard
-Australian vintage
-87% of all exported wines
297
How much wine is exported?
-2/3 of annual production
298
What are the 5 biggest export markets?
-UK,China,USA,Canada, Germany
-China fastest growing due to free trade agreement
-2020: exports to China dropped due to high tarriffs on Australian wines
299
What about cellar doors in Australia?
-very important, especially for smaller wineries
-2/3 of wine estate have cellar doors
-wine tourism: popular around bigger cities
300
What has been a trend according to domestic consumption?
-wines made from less common grape varieties
-encourages producers to experiment with new plantings
-exports: more difficult to sell due to small plantings and thus higher prices
