Avian Medicine Flashcards
(84 cards)
1
Q
Identifying sick/deteriorating animals
A
- Birds hide symptoms - illness makes them a target to
- A bird that looks sick is v sick! - crisis state
- Rapid metabolic rate -> rapid change in condition
- Minor changes - monitor weight, demeanour, activity
- Proactive w/ management
2
Q
Signs of ill health
A
- Fluffed up
- Loss of appetite, weight or condition
- Alteration in faeces
- Loss or change of voice/vocalisation
- Changed behaviour, less active
- Sleeping more
- Standing on 2 legs/abnormal stance
- Reduced performance
- Change in height of perching/on floor
- Change of balance (tail up or down)
- Tail bobbing
- Abnormal bodily discharges
- V+/regurg
- Wings hanging down
- Hanging onto perch/cage with beak
3
Q
Standard starting Dx protocol
A
- Haematology - nucleated RBCs, cannot run through machine, will have to do blood smear
- Biochem
- Lateral + ventrodorsal radiographs
4
Q
Blood sampling
A
- Jugular - apterium (featherless area) on RHS of neck - align vessel w/ vertebrae before sampling to allow application of pressure for haemostasis
- Superficial ulnar vein - catheterisation, blood sampling from catheter, haematoma formation greater
5
Q
Radiography - R lateral
A
- Extend wings dorsally + legs caudally
6
Q
Radiography - ventrodorsal
A
- Extend wings laterally + legs caudally
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Q
A
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Q
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9
Q
Common conditions
A
- Sour crop
- Fractures
- Squirrel bites
- Bumblefoot
- Wing tip oedema
- Aspergillosis
10
Q
Wing tip oedema
A
- Typically affects raptors from warm climates - Harris hawks, Lanner falcons, frst year birds predisposed
- Occurs in winter when temperatures drop
- Blood supply to the wing tip is compromised -> oedema of the metacarpi develops, dry gangrene follows with loss of the wing tip
- Loss of primary feathers leads to permanent flight
compromise - CS - dropped/abducted wings, swollen metacarpi, loss of one or both wing tips
11
Q
Wing tip oedema - Tx
A
- Gentle warming
- Physiotherapy (manual/flight if possible)
- Sterile draining of any vesicles
- Isoxsuprine (Navilox)/Propentofylline (Vivitonin)
- Topical Preparation H
- Covering AB therapy
- Tx hopeless if wing tip already lost
12
Q
Aspergillosis
A
- Commonest respiratory disease of captive bird
- Multiple species capable of disease: A. flavus, A. niger, A. fumigatus (most common), A terreus
- Non-contagious but can appear to cause outbreaks with group exposure to spores
- Opportunistic infection - Immunosuppression: concurrent disease/stress/malnutrition
- Marked predisposition in Goshawk, Golden Eagle, Gyr
falcon and Snowy owls - Overwhelming challenge: housing close to compost/hay/wood
- Aflatoxins cause hepatic pathology
- Marked leucocytosis
13
Q
Syringeal aspergilloma
A
- Fungal granulomas form on the syringeal mucosal folds at base of trachea
- Progressive air flow obstruction develops
- Early signs - changes in vocalisation
- Acute dyspnoea occurs as granulomas grow
- Dx - tracheoscopy
14
Q
Syringeal aspergilloma - Tx
A
- Stabilisation: air sac tube, supportive care
- Debridement (surgical/endoscopic
- Systemic antifungal therapy - Itraconazole - not as effective (toxic in AGPs), Voriconazole, Amphotericin B
- Nebulisation
- Dietary and environmental improvement
15
Q
Air sac aspergilloma
A
- Caudal air sacs generally affected - natural deposition of spores as air flow slows
- CS - no respiratory signs, general malaise, hepatic dysfunc, green droppings - inc bile pigment
- Tx - Surgical/endoscopic
debridement; anti-fungal therapy; nebulisation - Less favourable Px
16
Q
Lung aspergilloma
A
- Severe necrotising fungal pneumonia
- Dyspnoea - acute onset -> rapid death
- Poor Px
17
Q
Crop tube feeding
A
- Vital procedure
- Support bird in a towel
- Restrain head/jaw
- Pass tube into side of mouth on birds left
- Over the tongue and down the birds right side - avoiding the glottis
- Palpate the tube tip in the crop before feeding
18
Q
Common conditions (parrot)
A
- Beak overgrowth
- Wing clipping
- Resp compromise
- Feather plucking
19
Q
Beak overgrowth
A
- Should be worn effectively w/ appropriate management conditions
- Inappropriate wear - wrong diet; lack of chewing material (naturally destructive and will readily chew branches, toys, furniture)
- Infectious pathology - Knemidokoptes mite infestation; Circovirus (Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease) - Cockatoos appear most likely to develop severe
beak and nail changes - Previous trauma - malocclusion results + even wear is compromised; hand-feeding of juveniles is a common cause
- Abnormal growth - liver pathology, can be 2y secondary to malnutrition, hormonal irregularities - inc ovarian hormones, chlamydophila etc.
- Neoplasia rarely reported
20
Q
Beak overgrowth Tx (parrot)
A
- Rotating abrasive tool or burr is used
- Comprehensive trimming requires anaesthesia
- Minimises stress, beak can be reshaped properly + intraoral beak surfaces can be accessed
- ET tube can be placed to prevent dust inhalation
21
Q
Resp compromise
A
- Dyspnoeic bird = severely ill bird
- Stabilise in oxygen chamber while taking history
- Investigation under anaesthesia may need to be
attempted even in an unstable case - Warn owners that prognosis is guarded
- Investigation crucial as many causes can present as respiratory compromise and all have different approaches needed
22
Q
Resp compromise - causes
A
- Respiratory disease
- Cardiovascular
- Toxic
- Coelomic compression
23
Q
Resp compromise - resp disease causes (parrot)
A
- Aspergillosis
- Chlamydophila psittaci (Psittacosis/ornithosis)
- Inhaled foreign body (usually cockatiels)
- Tracheal stricture
- Tracheal trauma
- Pneumonia
-Tracheal parasitism (Syngamus spp.) - gapeworms
24
Q
Resp compromise - CVS causes
A
- Congestive HF - common in older owls, associated w. atherosclerosis in psittacines, positive correlation w/ chlamydia
- Anaemia - acute H+/chronic disease, IMHA reported in raptors
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Resp compromise - toxic causes
- Teflon inhalation = emergency e.g. non-stick pan overheated -> rapid pul oedema + H+, due to birds having v rapid resp system
- Resp irritants - smoke, aerosols
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Resp compromise, coelomic comopression causes
- No diaphragm present
- Coelomitis (often repro tract origin)
- Ascites
- Hepatomegaly
- Neoplasia
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Feather plucking - internal discomfort
- Air sacculitis (always check for Chlamydophila)
- Renal pathology
- Metabolic bone disease
- Chronic enteritis (beware proventricular dilation syndrome = viral cause, test for bornavirus)
- Osteoarthritis
- Angina
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Feather plucking - dermatological factors
- Preen gland impaction/infection - 2y to malnutrition (lack of Vitamin A) -> dry, brittle feathers
- Quill mites in kakarikis
- Polyfolliculitis in love birds
- Abnormal feathers - beware PBFD (Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease) if distorted/abnormal coloured feathers, altered smell or texture e.g. smoke, triggers removal
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Feather plucking - behavioural + physiological factors
- Displaced aggression/frustration
- Stressors in environment
- Alteration or lack of a routine
- Sexual/breeder frustration in imprinted birds
- Lack of stimulation and ‘boredom’ associated
- Physiological - mate preening in Macaws -
- Inc w/ stressed to release more endorphins to deal w/ stressors
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Feather plucking - Dx + Tx process
- Comprehensive medical investigation necessary to
identify health factors: Haematology and biochemistry, Radiography, Chlamydophila serology, Other tests as indicated
- Diet and management invariably need improvement even if not yet causing problems
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Egg peritonitis (pet poultry)
- Inflammation of
a bird’s reproductive tract and coelomic cavity
- Most common reason for presentation of chickens
- Ectopic follicle/yolk causing severe coelomic ‘foreign
body’ reaction
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Egg peritonitis - aetiopathogenesis I (pet poultry)
- Failure of a follicle to move into the infundibulum -> yolk instead is ovulated into the coelom
- Single episode causes mild inflammation
- Usually self-limiting
- Adhesions can lead to secondary problems
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Egg peritonitis - aetiopathogenesis II (pet poultry)
- Follicle ovulates normally but external trauma leads to
oviduct rupture and leakage
- Scarring and inflammation of oviduct likely to predispose to ongoing problems
- Difficult to identify as trauma usually unseen and little external indication
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Egg peritonitis - aetiopathogenesis III (pet poultry)
- Most common
- Accum damage to oviduct -> stricture
- Battery hens
- If got infection - virus/mycoplasma - inflam disease, salpinx, more scarring, higher risk of strictures
- Accumulated oviductal damage -> narrowing
- High output hens accumulate damage faster
- Infectious salpingitis increases risk dramatically
- Narrowing intermittently prevents normal egg progression
- Reflux of oviductal contents occurs leading to marked and
repeated inflammation
- Appears to be common
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Egg peritonitis - CS (pet poultry)
- None in early disease
- Lethargy
- Anorexia
- Weight loss - condition will drop but yolk content in coelom hides weight loss
- Ascites
- Predisposition to other pathogens
- Reduced frequency of laying
- Shell abnormalities
- Palpably warm ventral skin
- Self-trauma
- Dyspnoea
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Egg peritonitis - Dx (pet poultry)
- CE highly suggestive
- Radio - rarely Dx use
- US - recommended, easy to carry out - assess oviduct, demonstrates severity, will have fluid compressing air sacs, can see clearly into coelom
- Check for adhesions
- Allow safer aspiration
- DDx - Egg binding - no fluid build-up, inspissated oviduct of ascites - lots of egg material into oviduct, layer of albumin + shell building up -> solid impaction of oviduct, palp as firm solid mass
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Egg peritonitis - aspiration Tx (pet poultry)
- Clear to orange fluid
- High protein (>30g/l) and cellularity
- Cytology to check for secondary infection - surprisingly low incidence of infection
- Relieves pressure on respiratory and cardiovascular system
- Temporary measure
38
Egg peritonitis - DDx (pet poultry)
- Ascites
- Reduced laying/shell changes
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Ascites - causes (pet poultry)
- Bacterial coelomitis - a lot more sick if septic
- CHF
- Hepatopathy
40
Reduced laying/shell changes - causes (pet poultry)
- Mycoplasma gallisepticum
- Infectious bronchitis
- Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism
- Systemic disease
41
Egg peritonitis - management: initial stabilisation (pet poultry)
- O2 therapy
- SC fluids if dehydrated
- Drainage from coelom
42
Egg peritonitis - Conservative management (pet poultry)
- Anti-inflam - Meloxicam, 0.5 mg/kg BID
- Prophylactic antibiotic therapy if infection component
- Ongoing fluids + assist feeding if required
- Likely to recur when egg laying resumes
- Many owners are happy to treat intermittently
- Repeat episodes exacerbate oviductal damage
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Egg peritonitis - long term control (pet poultry)
Cessation of reproductive activity key
- Euthanasia
- Salpingectomy - high risk, technically demanding Sx, sig H+ common, difficult to eliminate post-op infection risk, expensive
- Endocrine manipulation - Leuprolide, Deslorelin (Suprelorin) - caution w/ FPA, * Stops egg laying for 3 m for 4.7 mm
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Egg peritonitis - prevention (pet poultry)
- Optimise husbandry
- Quarantine + vacc protocols - control infectious factors e.g. Mycoplasma
- Provide shelter to reduce trauma likelihood
- Select lower production breeds
- Culling controversial with pet birds
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Marek's disease (pet poultry)
- Oncogenic Gallid herpesvirus I
- Virus is ubiquitous + persists for > 1 year
- Chicks infected from environment - need to vacc from d 1
- Disease progression is highly variable
- Infected birds may be asymptomatic shedders
- Typically develops at 12 - 20 w
- Neurotrophic - sciatic nerve most commonly affected, progressive leg weakness + paralysis, neck weakness + opisthotonus also seen
- Dermal and visceral nodules can occur
- Iridial changes may be seen - blue/grey discolouration
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Marek's disease - Dx (pet poultry)
- Elimination of other causes of neuropathy e.g. heavy metal toxicity, hypovitaminosis B (coccidiosis), trauma (egg binding), egg binding
- Serology may be used - feather PCR, not definitive Dx
- Definitive diagnosis involves sciatic nerve histopathology
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Marek's disease - Tx + prevention (pet poultry)
- Euth infected
- Vacc readily available (Poulvac-MD)
- All chicks should be vaccinated from d 1
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Mycoplasma (pet poultry)
Two species of importance
- Mycoplasma gallisepticum - respiratory and reproductive
infections -> inflam of oviduct
- Mycoplasma synoviae - musculoskeletal infections in commercial broilers
- Mycoplasma meleagridis - respiratory infection in turkeys
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Mycoplasma gallisepticum (pet poultry)
- Common inhabitant of URT
- Immunosuppression leads to shedding
- Often seen after introduction of new birds
- Potentiation of/by IB (infectious bronchitis) + E.coli
- Co-infections lead to severe disease
- Rupture of air sac under skin
50
Mycoplasma gallisepticum - Dx + Tx
- Dx = CS
- Serology
- AB - Lincospectin (lincomyci/spectomycin combo); Tylan (tylosin)
- AB dec clinical signs but likely to remain carriers
51
Mycoplasma gallisepticum - prevention (pet poultry)
- Cull clinical cases
- Isolated suspected infected birds
- Vacc new stock
52
Internal parasites - coccidia (poultry)
- Eimeria - most pathogenic + common species = E. necatrix and E. tenella
- Cause caecal inflammation, necrosis + 2y bacterial infection: D+, weight loss, ill thrift, lethargy, fluffed appearance, rarely cause ‘pathognomonic’
haematochezia
- Young birds more severely affected with high mortality
53
Coccidia - Dx + Tx (poultry)
- Dx - identification of oocysts on faecal smear/flotation
- Tx - Baycox (Toltrazuril) - 7 mg/kg SID for two days
- Environmental hygiene
54
Internal parasites - nematodes (poultry)
- Most have low pathogenicity
- Ascarids can affect food conversion efficiency, flubenvet in food effective
- Capillaria = high pathogenicity (more resistant to flubendazole) - oesophageal lesions in turkeys and game
bird, intestinal pathology in chickens, resistance common
- Flubendazole licensed with zero egg withdrawal
55
Raptor diet
- Eat an entire carcass and then regurgitate the bones and feather/fur (the indigestible part).
- Do not feed pure muscle (not a balanced diet).
- Feeding the same each day will not be balanced e.g mix chicks, rodents, rabbit.
- How food is sourced/kept/frozen/defrosted is very important.
- Ca : P ratio is the important factor.
- Always provide fresh water for bathing and drinking.
- Diet should be tailored to activity, weighing birds daily allows for this.
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Common conditions of raptors
- Aspergillosis
- Enteritis
- Coccidiosis
- Capillaria
- Lead Poisoning
- Crop Stasis
- Frost Bite
- Wing tip oedema
- Pododermatitis
- Blunt Trauma
- Fractures
57
Aspergillosis (raptor)
- Fungal spores in environment (opportunistic) - within the soil
- Individual birds susceptible
- Found in moulds within soil, feed and hay - food ingested
- Fungal pneumonia, air sacculitis and granulomas
- Acute and chronic forms
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Aspergillosis (raptor) - Dx
- CS - weight loss, lethargy, behaviour change/poor performance, voice change = acute emergency, not wanting to fly
- Bloods (Haem/biochem)
- PCR blood test (IDs A. fumigatus and
A. terreus, A. niger and A.flavus)
- Radiographs
- Endoscopy - check air sacs + sample - PCR
- Culture (takes a long time) - only if got large group to know specificity
- Cytology
- Histopathology
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Apergilliosis (raptors) - Tx
- Sx - endoscopy to remove plaques
- Nebulisation - F10 1 : 250
- Medical - voriconazole 12.5 mg/kg PO BID
- Hygiene - antifungals, disinfectants, travel boxes
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Enteritis (raptors)
- Abnormal mutes (faeces) is the main clinical sign
- Can also vomit or regurgitate, have maelena or undigested food in the faeces + anorexia
- Causes: Bacterial, Viral, Fungal, Endoparasitic, Toxicity, Other (e.g neoplasia, foreign bodies)
- Acute enteritis is an emergency – needs supportive care/fluids
- Usually work up – faecal parasitology, haematology, biochemistry, imaging with a crop wash/culture
61
DDx - white plaques in mouth (raptors)
- Capillaria
- Trichomonas
- Candida
- Pox virus
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White plaques in mouth - Capillaria (raptors)
- Most common nematode in captive raptors - commonly eat earthworms
- CS - head shaking, white/yellow plaques in mouth, D+, weight loss, lethargy
- Dx - faecal parasitology
- Tx = fenbendazole
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White plaques in mouth - Trichomonas (raptors)
- Protozoa affecting mouth, oesophagus + crop
- Common in birds of prey eating pigeons - should freeze pigeons before defrosting + feeding
- CS - white/yellow plaques in mouth + head flicking
- Dx = impression smear (swab) - moving flagella on microscopic exam of plaques w/ saline
- Tx - metronidazole/carnidazole e.g. Harkers
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Lead poisoning (raptors)
- Exposure = eating shot wildlife (lead pellets)
- CS due to damage to the gastrointestinal tract, RBCs, kidneys and liver
- Lethargy, anaemia, gastrointestinal signs, and neurological signs (e.g
tremors).
- Dx - Bloods can show non-regenerative anaemia, liver and kidney damage; Radiographs can show radiopaque lead particles in GIT; Blood lead levels diagnose/confirm toxicity.
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Lead poisoning Tx (raptors)
- REMOVE LEAD (small particles pass through in 4 - 5 days, bigger particles will need removing by endoscope or surgery).
- Calcium EDTA (20‐40mg/kg IM) is a commonly used chelating drug.
- Supportive care (fluids, warmth, feeds etc).
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Crop stasis (raptors)
- Crop = storage organ, does not digest.
- If crop emptying is prolonged (stasis), the meat will putrefy.
- Causes: Crop infection, Inappropriate food, Dehydration, Low body condition, Over full crop/over gorging
- Patients may appear bright with a distended crop or collapsed and in shock (toxaemia).
67
Crop stasis Tx (raptors)
- Remove content of the crop, even though GA risky
- Sx - ingluviotomy
- Anti-fungal e.g. nustatin
- AB
- Supportive care - fluids, crop feeds, warmth
- Don't feed bird of prey if cast has not yet been regurged = risk of obstruction
68
Wing tip oedema (raptors)
- WTONS = Wing tip oedema and necrosis syndrome
- Reduced blood flow to wing tips
- Unknown cause -> Feather loss, oedema and necrotic tissue at the tips of wings.
- Tx - vascular stimulants (isoxsuprine)
- Radiograph - carpus bone involvement?
- Prevention – keep birds warm and dry
69
Head trauma (raptors)
- Commonly occurs when hunting, hit by cars etc.
- Always do an ophthalmic exam with found wild birds of prey.
Ophthalmic exam
- No tapetum lucidum (no reflection of light).
- Pecten - function is to supply blood to the retina.
- Always check for ocular haemorrhage.
- If sight is poor (suggesting complete detachment of the pecten) prognosis is poor -> euth
70
Grade I pododermatitis
- Small, shiny pink areas
- And/or peeling or flaking on legs/feet
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Grade II pododermatitis
- Smooth, shiny surfaced, circumscribed areas on pads of one or both feed
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Grade III pododermatitis
- Ulceration on footpads
- Peripheral callus may form
73
Grade IV pododermatitis
- Necrotic plug of tissue present in ulcers
- Painful + causes mild lameness
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Grade V pododermatitis
- Swelling + oedema of tissues surrounding necrotic debris
- Severe lameness
75
Pododermatitis (raptors)
- Causes in birds of prey - Husbandry, Injury (e.g rodent bites), Self-injury (own talon into sole of the foot), Incorrect perch/perch covering, Poor perch hygiene, Obesity, Hypovitaminosis A - causes problems w/ skin surface
- Organisms commonly involved – Staphs, E.coli, Proteus, Candida
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Pododermatitis type I - Tx
- Balanced diet
- Clean environment
- Cover perches
- Handle + fly more/free loft
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Pododermatitis type II - III Tx
- C&S
- Oral AB - e.g. co-amoxyclav
- F10 barrier cream (fungal + bacteria)
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Pododermatitis type IV - V - Tx
- C&S
- Oral AB - e.g. co-amoxyclav
- F10 barrier cream (fungal + bacteria)
- Sx to debride + shell out puss/necrotic core - clean area, to make it as vascular as possible
- Dressings - ball bandage/show bandage
79
Fx (raptors)
- Tibiotarsal + wing Fx common due to trauma
- Birds of prey need accuracy in flight for hunting - repair needed to restore limb func (hybrid fixation)
80
Fx Tx (raptors)
- Cage rest only (pelvis or clavicle)
- External stabilisation (if a bone is too small for internal stabilisation)
- Internal fixation (IM pins work well in avian bones)
- “Hybrid” fixation (IM pins with external skeletal fixators)
81
Blood sampling (raptors)
- Preferred = jugular v
- Brachial wing vein can be used + place cannula
- Medial metatarsal v used but care w/ feet
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Emergency care (raptors)
- Intravenous fluids – if collapsed can do 10 mL/kg/min fluid bolus.
- Intraosseous fluids – Sterile insertion. Distal ulnar or proximal tibia.10 mL/kg/hr rate.
- Crop tube fluids - 12 mL/kg (if owl use a stomach tube and 8 mL/kg).
- Analgesia – NSAIDs, butorphanol, buprenorphine.
- Intubate (ET tube) or air sac (movement, can fill w/ O2 to go into lungs but need lungs for the ventilation) cannula if not breathing - easy to see tracheal opening
- Ventilate/oxygenate.
- Crop or stomach tube nutrients/fluids (12 mL/kg)
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Medication routes
- Oral medication – via crop/stomach tube or inject/insert medication into meat/carcass feeds. Use flexible tube to feed.
- Muscle injections – Caudal third of pectoral muscles. Avoid legs muscles due to renal portal system. Check doesn't cause any irritation
- Subcutaneous injections - poor absorption rate, around wing region, boluses
- Avoid muscular injections if possible, especially irritable substances (can affect flight/performance)
- Nebulising is effective in birds with respiratory disease, stick in tank + ensure ventilated.
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