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B- forms and function Flashcards

all the long questions (4+) (73 cards)

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1
Q

What are the basic building blocks of life?

A

Molecules

Molecules form the foundation of cells, which in turn make up organisms.

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2
Q

What is the smallest unit of life?

A

Cells

Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms.

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3
Q

What is the term for a community of interacting organisms and their environment?

A

Ecosystem

Ecosystems consist of living organisms and their physical environment.

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4
Q

What process involves the copying of DNA?

A

DNA replication

DNA replication is essential for cell division and the continuity of genetic information.

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5
Q

What enzyme unwinds and unzips the DNA during replication?

A

DNA helicase

DNA helicase breaks hydrogen bonds to form the replication fork.

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6
Q

What is the role of DNA polymerase III?

A

Synthesizes new DNA strands

DNA polymerase III adds nucleotides in a 5’ to 3’ direction.

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7
Q

How does DNA polymerase I function in DNA replication?

A

Removes RNA primers and replaces them with DNA nucleotides

This enzyme ensures that the newly synthesized DNA is continuous.

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8
Q

What is the purpose of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)?

A

Amplifies small fragments of DNA

PCR is crucial for advancements in medical and forensic science.

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9
Q

What are the stages of PCR?

A

Denaturation, Annealing, Extension

These stages involve heating DNA, binding primers, and replicating DNA.

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10
Q

What is gel electrophoresis used for?

A

Separating DNA fragments based on size and charge

This technique allows visualization of DNA fragments after amplification.

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11
Q

What is the primary product of transcription?

A

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

mRNA carries genetic information for protein synthesis.

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12
Q

Where does transcription occur in eukaryotic cells?

A

Nucleus

In prokaryotic cells, transcription occurs in the cytoplasm.

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13
Q

What is the role of transcription factors?

A

Bind to promoters to regulate transcription

They can increase or decrease RNA polymerase activity.

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14
Q

What happens during the elongation phase of transcription?

A

RNA nucleotides find complementary bases on the DNA

RNA polymerase catalyzes the formation of covalent bonds between nucleotides.

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15
Q

What is alternative splicing?

A

Allows one gene to code for multiple proteins

This process can remove additional exons from pre-mRNA.

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16
Q

What is the function of tRNA?

A

Brings amino acids to the ribosome

tRNA has an anticodon that is complementary to mRNA codons.

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17
Q

What is the start codon for translation?

A

AUG

This codon signals the beginning of protein synthesis.

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18
Q

What is the role of ribosomes in translation?

A

Facilitate the synthesis of proteins

Ribosomes consist of large and small subunits that coordinate tRNA and mRNA.

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19
Q

What are the three binding sites on a ribosome?

A

A, P, E sites

A site holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid; P site holds the growing polypeptide; E site is where tRNA exits.

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20
Q

What is a mutation?

A

Permanent structural changes to genes

Mutations can affect protein function and may be beneficial, neutral, or harmful.

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21
Q

What are single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)?

A

Base substitutions in DNA sequence

SNPs can be synonymous (no change in amino acid) or non-synonymous (change in amino acid).

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22
Q

What is the CRISPR-Cas9 system used for?

A

Gene editing

This system allows for precise modifications of DNA sequences.

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23
Q

What is the function of cyclins in the cell cycle?

A

Regulate the progression of the cell cycle

Cyclins activate enzymes that phosphorylate target proteins.

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24
Q

What is the outcome of mitosis?

A

Production of diploid daughter cells

Mitosis results in cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell.

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25
What is the process of oogenesis?
Production of mature eggs in humans ## Footnote Oogenesis involves unequal distribution of cytoplasmic content.
26
What is the role of proto-oncogenes?
Promote cell growth ## Footnote When mutated, they can become oncogenes and contribute to cancer development.
27
What is phenotypic plasticity?
Ability of genotype to produce different phenotypes ## Footnote This occurs when individuals are exposed to varying environmental conditions.
28
What is non-disjunction?
Failure of chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis ## Footnote It can lead to conditions like trisomy or monosomy.
29
What is gene expression regulation by enhancers?
Enhancers are non-coding DNA that can be found at various distances from the gene and regulate gene expression by promoting RNA polymerase binding to the promoter through activator proteins. ## Footnote Enhancers increase gene expression.
30
How does mRNA degradation affect gene expression?
mRNA degradation controls the extent of gene expression, as mRNA can be translated multiple times before degradation occurs. ## Footnote Nucleases break down mRNA, affecting its persistence.
31
What is the role of the poly-A tail in mRNA?
The poly-A tail at the 3’ end increases the structural stability of mRNA, allowing it to persist longer and be translated multiple times. ## Footnote This stability is influenced by the presence of stabilizing proteins.
32
What is the function of stabilizing proteins in relation to mRNA?
Stabilizing proteins interfere with the activity of nucleases, blocking their active sites and preventing them from degrading mRNA. ## Footnote They promote binding to mRNA and can also facilitate degradation.
33
What are epigenetic tags?
Epigenetic tags are chemical groups (methyl and acetyl) added to DNA and/or histones that alter transcription rates by promoting or inhibiting RNA polymerase binding. ## Footnote They can result in changes in gene expression across different cells and tissues.
34
What is histone acetylation?
Histone acetylation is the addition of an acetyl group to a histone tail, decreasing the overall charge of histones and reducing the attraction between histones and DNA. ## Footnote This allows RNA polymerase to bind to the promoter and facilitates gene expression.
35
What is DNA methylation?
DNA methylation involves the addition of a methyl group to cytosine in a promoter, which represses transcription by preventing transcription factors from binding. ## Footnote This results in decreased gene expression or gene silencing.
36
What is epigenetic inheritance?
Epigenetic inheritance is the transmission of non-genetic information that can influence gene expression across generations. ## Footnote Changes must be maintained in egg and sperm cells to be passed on.
37
What happens to epigenetic tags shortly after fertilization?
The majority of epigenetic tags are removed from DNA, resetting the epigenetic environment of the genome. ## Footnote This process eliminates modifications acquired during the parents' lifetimes.
38
What is the lac operon?
The lac operon is a cluster of three genes in bacterial DNA that codes for proteins that digest lactose, allowing bacteria to utilize lactose as an energy source when glucose is absent. ## Footnote It is regulated by the presence or absence of lactose.
39
What occurs during the acrosome reaction in fertilization?
The acrosome reaction involves the digestion of the zona pellucida to allow sperm to reach the plasma membrane of the egg. ## Footnote This is crucial for successful fertilization.
40
What is the primary function of hCG during pregnancy?
hCG maintains the corpus luteum, allowing continual production of estrogen and progesterone after implantation. ## Footnote This is essential for maintaining the endometrium.
41
What is the difference between spermatogenesis and oogenesis?
Spermatogenesis produces four haploid sperm cells, while oogenesis results in one ovum and polar bodies with limited cytoplasm. ## Footnote Both processes occur through meiosis but have different outcomes.
42
What is the role of testosterone in male puberty?
Testosterone initiates the development of secondary sexual characteristics and regulates the negative feedback on GnRH, FSH, and LH secretion. ## Footnote This hormonal regulation begins at puberty.
43
What is the significance of Mendel's experiments?
Mendel's experiments demonstrated the inheritance of traits through selective breeding, leading to the understanding of genetic inheritance patterns. ## Footnote His work laid the foundation for modern genetics.
44
True or False: High blood glucose levels trigger the secretion of glucagon.
False ## Footnote High blood glucose levels trigger the secretion of insulin, while low levels trigger glucagon.
45
What physiological mechanisms do birds and mammals use for thermoregulation?
Birds and mammals use both physiological and behavioral mechanisms to regulate body temperature, coordinated by the nervous system. ## Footnote This includes responses like shivering and sweating.
46
Fill in the blank: The process of _______ involves the fusion of male and female gametes to form a diploid zygote.
fertilization ## Footnote This process is a key aspect of sexual reproduction.
47
What is the normal range for human body temperature?
36.5˚C - 37.5˚C
48
What happens when body temperature is low?
Temperature receptors in hypothalamus stimulate heat-producing mechanism ## Footnote This includes constriction of superficial arteries and increased shivering.
49
What mechanisms are activated when body temperature is high?
Heat-releasing mechanism initiated by temperature receptors ## Footnote This includes vasodilation, sweating, and decreased metabolic heat production.
50
What is osmoregulation?
Regulation of water and ion content in blood
51
What is the primary function of the kidneys?
Osmoregulation, excretion, hormone production, filtering blood
52
What occurs during ultrafiltration in the kidneys?
Blood plasma is filtered through the fenestration and basement membrane of the Bowman’s capsule
53
Where does reabsorption occur in the kidney?
In the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
54
What substances are reabsorbed in the PCT?
Glucose, amino acids, water, ions
55
What is the role of the Loop of Henle in the kidneys?
Maintains hypertonic environment in medulla
56
What is the function of ADH in osmoregulation?
Causes aquaporins to switch locations to increase water reabsorption
57
What is natural selection?
Process where favourable variation increases in population across generations
58
What are the key components of natural selection?
* Variation * Overproduction * Competition * Inheritance * Adaptation
59
What is the difference between primary and secondary succession?
* Primary succession: occurs in an area never colonized * Secondary succession: occurs in an area previously colonized but disturbed
60
What is a keystone species?
Species with a disproportionate effect on a community compared to their abundance
61
What are density-dependent factors?
Factors that depend on population density
62
What is ecosystem stability?
Ability to maintain structure and function despite disturbances
63
What is the significance of genetic diversity in ecosystems?
High diversity makes ecosystems resistant to change
64
What is biomagnification?
Accumulation of pollutants in higher trophic levels through the food chain
65
What is the impact of eutrophication?
Causes algal blooms, increases BOD, and decreases sunlight availability for aquatic plants
66
What are anthropogenic causes of climate change?
Greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion and deforestation
67
What is a positive feedback cycle in climate change?
A cycle where initial changes cause further changes that amplify the effect
68
What is phenology?
Study of the timing of biological events in relation to seasonal and environmental factors
69
What are the effects of climate change on migration patterns?
Alters environmental cues leading to mismatched timing in species
70
What is the effect of microplastics on marine life?
Can degrade habitats and accumulate toxins in food chains
71
What is the role of brown adipose tissue in thermoregulation?
Generates heat through uncoupled cellular respiration
72
Fill in the blank: The absence of a ________ species can drastically alter an ecosystem.
keystone
73
True or False: Only mutations in somatic cells are inheritable.
False

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