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b1.1-b1.3 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the five main components of a balanced diet?

A 
Protein
Carbohydrates
Fats
Fibre
Vitamins+Minerals
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2
Q

Describe what the body uses protein from food for

A

Growth

Cell repair + replacement

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3
Q

Describe what the body uses fats for

A

Insulation
Quick release energy
Energy stores

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4
Q

Describe what the body uses carbohydrates from food for

A

Slow release energy

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5
Q

What is the function of having fibre in a balanced diet?

A

Keping digestive system effective

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6
Q

Why are vitamins and minerals an important part of a balanced diet?

A 
Maintain:
Bones
Skin
Blood 
etc.
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7
Q

Define metabolism

A

All the chemical reactions in the body

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8
Q

Define metabolic rate

A

The rate at which all the chemical reactions in the body occur

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9
Q

What factors affect metabolic rate?

A 
Exercise (will speed up)
Proportion of muscle to fat (more m=faster)
Genetic factors (e.g thyroid function)
Climate (colder=slower)
Size (bigger=faster)
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10
Q

Define malnourishment

A

Having an unbalanced diet

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11
Q

What is obesity a result of?

A

Excess in fat or carbohydrates in the diet

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12
Q

What can obesity cause?

A 
Type 2 diabetes
Cancer
Arthritis
High bP
Heart disease
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13
Q

What is cholesterol?

A

Natural occuring fatty substance in the digestive system

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14
Q

What does an abundance of cholesterol increase the risk of?

A

Heart disease

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15
Q

What do statins do?

How?

A

Lower excesses of cholesterol

—>Inhibits enzyme that produces C from working

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16
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of statins?

A

+ Lowers excess cholesterol

  • ->+ Lowers chance of heart disease/ill health
  • Expensive
  • Can be abused
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17
Q

Which factors affect health?

A

Diet
Exercise
Genetics
Environment

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18
Q

Define pathogens

A

Micro=organisms that cause disease

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19
Q

What are the four types of pathogens?

A

Fungi
Parasites
Bacteria
Viruses

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20
Q

What do viruses do when they take over the body?

A

Take over healthy cells
Reproduce within cells until they burst
–>releases more of the virus into the body

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21
Q

What do bacteria do when they cause disease in the body?

A

Produce toxins
–>damage cells
Reproduce rapidly

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22
Q

Define an antigen

A

A marker on the surface of a pathogen that acts as specific identification

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23
Q

Define an antibody

A

Protein produced by lymphocytes to fight pathogens

  • ->Attach to antigens to damage/destroy
  • ->Clump pathogens together to aid phagocytosis
  • ->Bind to pathogens and use chem. signals to attract phagocytes
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24
Q

What are the two types of white blood cells?

A

Phagocytes

Lymphocytes

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25
What are the role of phagocytes?
Phagocytosis -Engulf and digest pathogens -->Uses enzymes Chem messages to lymphocytes identifying specific antibodies necessary for antigens
26
Whats the role of a lymphocyte in fighting pathogens?
Produce specific antibodies that attach to antigens and damage pathogens/clump pathogens/messages to phagocytes Produce antitoxins that neutralise toxins produced by pathogens
27
What are the barriers against pathogens on the human body?
Eyes produce LYSOSYME (enzyme=chem) Stomach produces HYDROCHLORIC ACID (sterilises chyme= CHEM) Skin produces SEBUM (kills pathogens but can become food in high conc.s = CHEM) Skin (physical barrier) Ear wax traps pathogens (physical) -->+ Mucus in respiratory tract
28
How does a vaccination work?
Dead/weakened version of pathogen injected Body produces specific antibodies to fight antigens/pathogen If the body is reinfected w/ pathogen--> rapid response from body of mass producing specific antibodies =immunity -->can wear off over time--> BOOSTER INJECTIONS
29
What are the advantages and disadvantages of vaccinations?
PROS Large scale vaccinations prevents epidemics Have controlled/eradicated many dangerous infectious diseases CONS Won't always work Bad reactions to vaccinations
30
What are the purpose of painkillers?
Reduce symptoms | -dont address specific disease
31
What's the purpose of antibiotics?
Kill bacteria | -Specific to strain
32
Why is it difficult to develop drugs for viruses?
Viruses reproduce using body cells -->Difficult to fight w/out killing body cells Takes time to produce anti-virals
33
What is the process of bacteria resistance?
Mutations w/in a pop--> randomly mutate to be resistant to certain antibiotic Antibiotic treatment: non-resistant will die Resistant will survive- reproduce- pass on mutated gene (NATURAL SELECTION) -->Causes infection that can't be treated w antibiotics
34
What is an example of bacteria being resistant?
MRSA
35
What can be done to prevent increasingly bacteria resistance?
Lowering prescriptions of antibiotics | Finishing course of antibiotics- past symptoms disappearing-->so no bacteria survive
36
What is the method for investigating antibiotics?
Grow cultures of micro-organisms (in 'culture medium'--> agar jelly containing glucose+vits/mins Jelly cooled-micro-os transferred using inoculating loop) Paper discs soaked in antibiotics placed onto jelly -->Observe which strains are resistant VS which die
37
What did Semmelweiss observe in the 1840s?
Babies delivered by male students=more likely to die than delivered by nurses
38
What was Semmelweiss' hypothesis?
Male students examined cadavers | -->particles transferred to uterus of mothers via students' hands
39
What was Semmelweiss' experiment?
Ordered male students to wash hands before delivering babies | chlorinated lime
40
What were Semmelweiss' findings?
DR dropped significantly BUT couldn't prove-->others didn't adopt
41
Why did other doctors not adopt Semmelweiss' method?
He couldn't prove why it worked
42
What is sterile technique?
Sterilise all equipment--> pass through flame (kill unwanted micro-organisms) Seal petri dishes (avoid contamination)
43
Define a stimulus
Any change to surroudning environment
44
What is the role of the nervous system?
Detect stimulus and react to it
45
What are receptors?
(transducers) | Cells which change one form of energy into another
46
What are the roles of sense organs? What do they contain to allow them to do this?
Detect simuli Receptors
47
What are the 5 main sense organs? What are they sensitive to?
``` Skin touch,pressure,pain,temp change Nose chem. stimuli (smell receptors) Tongue chem stimuli (taste receptors) Eyes light (light receptors) Ears sound and change in position (sound and balance receptors) ```
48
What is the central nervous system comprised of?
Brain and spinal chord
49
What occurs in the CNS?
All info from sense organs sent | -->Co ordinates reflexes and actions
50
How is information from sense organs sent to and from sense organs?
Neurones transmit
51
What happens after the CNS co ordinates an action?
Instruction sent to effectors | -->respond accordingly
52
What are effectors?
Muscles and glands | contract and secrete hormones
53
What are the three types of neurone?
Sensory Relay Motor
54
What do sensory neurones do?
Carry electrical impulses from receptors to CNS
55
What do relay neurones do?
Carry electrical impulses from sensory to motor neurones
56
What do motor neurones do?
Carry electrical impulses from CNS to effectors
57
What is the PNS
Peripheral Nervous System | -->carries impulses from receptors to CNS and from CNS to effectors
58
What is the PNS comprised of?
Sensory and motor neurones
59
List the features of a neurone
``` Nucleus Cell body Axon Myelin sheath Nerve ending/ Synoptic knobs ```
60
What direction is an electrical impulse carried in a neurone?
From cell body along axon to synoptic knobs
61
Describe how an electrical impulse travels from a relay neurone to a motor neurone
Impulse along axon of relay neurone Trigger release of neurotransmitter Diffuse down conc. gradient across synapse Triggers electrical impulse along motor neurone -->carries on to send message to effectors
62
Define a reflex
An automatic response to stimuli
63
What is the advantage of a reflex arc bypassing the brain
Speeds reaction up | in emergency: avoids getting injured
64
What is the reflex arc?
Stimulus-Receptor-STORM-Effector-Reaction
65
What does STORM stand for?
Sensory neurone TO Relay neurone to motor neurone
66
What does the reflex arc bypass?
The brain
67
Define homeostasis
How to body maintains a constant internal environment
68
What is are examples of internal conditions that the body needs to keep constant
PH levels of blood Blood glucose concentration Temperature
69
How does the body maintain homeostasis?
Hormones
70
Define a hormone
Chemical messengers released from glands into blood plasma that are specific to target cells/organs and activate these by attaching to membrane
71
Give an example of a hormone
Adrenaline (from adrenal gland) | Oestrogen (from ovaries)
72
What are the differences between using nerves and hormones?
``` Nerves -v fast -act for short time -act on precise area Hormones -slower message -act for long time -act in a more general way ```
73
What is the most important gland in the body?
Pituitary gland
74
What are the hormones involved in the menstrual cycle?
Oestrogen Luteinizing hormone (LH) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Progesterone
75
Where is oestrogen secreted? What is its effect?
Ovaries Inhibits FSH production Starts LH production`
76
Where is luteinizing hormone secreted? What is its effect?
Pituitary gland Stimulates release of an egg
77
Where is follicle stimulating hormone released? What is the effect of this?
Pituitary gland Causes egg to mature
78
What are the stages of the menstrual cycle?
days 1-5 Menstruation -lining of uterus breaks down ``` days 5-14 FSH released-causes egg to grow + mature -lining of uterus builds up again (thick spongy layers full of blood vessels) =ready to recieve fertilised egg Follicles secrete oestrogen ``` 14- LH peak=ovulation (egg released) Oestrogen secretion stopped 14-21 Progesterone released by empty follicle Stops LH LINING THICKENS AND MAINTAINED 28/1- If egg is not fertilised-> progesterone falls -spongy layer breaks down MENSTRUATION (cycle continues)
79
Explain how the oestrogen contraceptive pill works
Artificial elevated levels of oestrogen - ->Starts LH production - ->Inhibits FSH production - eggs not able to mature=won't be released for fertilisation
80
Explain how the progesterone contraceptive pill works
Progesterone=stimulates production of thick cervical mucus -->Prevents sperm entering uterus LESS SIDE EFFECTS LESS EFFECTIVE
81
Which type of contraceptive pill is more effective?
Oestrogen
82
Which type of contraceptive pill has more side effects?
Oestrogen
83
What are the advantages and disadvantages of contraceptive pills?
PROS over 99% effective reduces risks of specific cancers CONS never 100% effective side effects doesn't protect against STIs
84
How do fertility drugs work?
``` Inject FSH (=elevated levels) Causes ovaries to mature eggs (if LH is healthy) Will be released ```
85
How does IVF work?
Egg collected Fertilised in a lab using sperm (in vitro) Grown into embryos Once a ball of cells -->few transferred into uterus (either mother or surrogate) to develop
86
What are the advantages and disadvantages of fertility treatments?
PROS Increases chances of pregnancy IVF- embryos can be screened for unhealthy genetic mutations/disabilities Replaces invasive fallopian tube surgeries ``` CONS Ethical complications Expensive Higher complication rate Increased levels of FSH= more likely to have multiple pregnancies (can stimulate multiple follicles) ```
87
Define an auxin
Plant hormones responsible for plant growth Stimulates shoots Retards roots Moved to shaded area of plant
88
Define a tropsim
Any growth response to stimulus
89
Define a geotropism
Response to gravity
90
Define a negative tropism
Response away from a stimulus
91
Define phototropism
Response to light
92
Define a positive tropism
Response towards stimulus
93
Define hydrotropism
Response to water
94
Define haptotropism
Growing around stimulus
95
Explain phototropism of a shoot
Auxins accumulate on shaded side if shoot (negative tropism) Uneven distribution causes increased cell growth (+ cell elongation) Shoot bends towards light due to uneven length
96
Explain geotropism for shoots and roots How is this an advantage?
``` SHOOTS Auxins accumulate on lower side Stimulates growth Uneven distribution causes longer lower side -->Bends upwards (can access more sunlight) ``` ``` ROOTS Auxins accumulate on lower side Retards growth Uneven distribution causes upper side grow faster -->Bends downwards due to uneven sides (deeper in soil=more moisture exposure) ```
97
What are commercial uses of auxins?
Controlling ripening of fruit -->Balancing hormones during shipping to prevent premature ripening Killing weeds - ->Weeds have diff. growth pattern to crop - ->Disrupting normal growth of weeds-->grow so fast they die Growing plant cuttings -->rooting powder contains auxins (amplifying/speeding up geotropism) Seedless fruit -->Adding to pollinated plants will produce seedless fruit
98
How does the body control ion content?
Ions taken in by food-if too much taken in of one kind:excess removed -Regulated by kidneys-->remove from blood to urine
99
How does the body control blood glucose levels?
Glucose from carbohydrates -->Removed by process of metabolism Insulin=maintains levels (so cells get constant supply)
100
How does the body control water levels?
In:food and drink Out: Sweat, breath and urine Balance between sweat and urine depends on external conditions
101
How much will a person produce sweat and urine if they are in cold conditions?
Less sweat | More diluted urine
102
How much sweat and urine will a person produce if they are in a hot climate?
More sweat | Less diluted urine
103
How does the body control core temperature? Why does it need to?
Area in brain -->sends messages to skin (sensitive to temp in brain) Enzymes in the body are most effective at ~37degrees
104
What is the definition of a drug?
Chemicals that alter the chemical reactions in the body
105
What are the three types of drugs?
Recreational Performance-enhancing Medicinal
106
What is the definition of a recreational drug?
A chemical that alters the chemical reactions in the body and is used for fun (illegal and legal)
107
What is the definition of a medicinal drug?
A chemical that alters the chemical reactions in the body and is useful medically
108
What is the definition of a performance enhancing drug?
A chemical that alters the chemical reaction sin the body and improves performance in sport
109
What are two types of performance enhancing drugs?
Stimulants | Ananbolic steroids
110
What is a negative health effect of anabolic steriods?
Causes high BP
111
What are the ethical pros and cons of performance enhancing drugs?
PROS Athletes have the right to make informed decisions about their bodies if they know the risks Drug free sport isn't necessarily fair (athletes will have access to different levels of facilities) CONS Unfair advantage given to athletes outside of training Athletes may not know what they are taking/understand the risks
112
Define statins
Prescribed drugs that are used to lower risk of heart and circulatory disease
113
Why was the original research suggesting the benefits of statins reliable?
Run by govt. scientists with no connections to manufactures Used a large sample Used control groups Results were reproducible
114
Define a placebo
A fake version of a drug that is used as a control/to measure the effect of patient's being told they are being treated in a drug test -->psychosematic effect
115
Define a blind drug test
A clinical trial where the patient doesn't know if they are being administered the active agent being tested or not but the medical professional administering does
116
Define a double blind drug trial
A clinical trial where the patient nor the medical professional are aware if the patient is recieving the active agent being tested or not
117
State the 4 stages of drug testing
Computer mapping/tested on human cells/tissues Live animals Healthy volunteers Patients
118
Why can not all drugs be tested on human cells/tissues in a alb?
If they affect multiple systems in the body simultaneously | -
119
What is the use of testing drugs on live animals?
Testing: If it works Toxicity Best dosage
120
What is the law in Britain regarding testing drugs on live animals?
Legally have to be tested on 2 diff species of live mammals
121
What are the ethics surrounding testing drugs on animals?
PROS Safest way to determine whether a drug is safe or not CONS Cruel
122
What is the use of testing drugs on healthy volunteers?
Investigating possible side effects | low dosages-->increased
123
What is the use of testing drugs on real patients?
Finding optimum dose | most effective w least amount of side effects
124
How is the effectiveness of a drug tested on real patients?
Split into two groups-active agent and placebo | -->Control variable of placebo allows Drs. to identify the drug itself makes
125
Why are some drug trials double blind?
So that medical professionals aren't subconsciously influenced to look for non existent patterns
126
Why are drug trials blind?
Allows the use of the placebo effect
127
What was thalidomide originally used as?
Sleep medication
128
What was thalidomide later found to be useful for?
Relieving morning sickness
129
What was the impact of thalidomide?
Passed through placenta to foetus Stunted limb growth ~10,000 born-->1/2 affected
130
Why was the impact of thalidomide not known?
Hadn't been tested on pregnant animals or patients
131
What is thalidomide now used as treatment for?
leprosy | bone cancer
132
How do painkillers work?
Inhibits neurones-->blocks transmission | SYMPTOMS NOT CAUSES
133
Why do people take recreational drugs?
Pain relief Fun Relaxation Relieving stress
134
Why have some scientists linked cannabis use to further use of hard drugs?
Stepping stone -positive reaction creates desire to try harder drugs Gate way drug -gets people in contact with drug dealers Genetics -those who are likely to try cannabis are likely to also try harder drugs
135
What are the negative impacts of smoking tobacco?
Linked to cardiothorasic diseases Nicotine=addictive Carinogenic
136
What are the negative impacts of drinking alcohol?
Affects nervous system -->impaired judgement Damages brain and liver

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