B5 Definitins Flashcards
(131 cards)
1
Q
What are endoskeletons?
A
Endoskeletons are skeletons on the indiscernible of the body that are made up of cartilage, bone or both
2
Q
What are exoskeletons?
A
They are skeletons o nth outside of the body that acts as a protective oc wring which supports the animal and provides a framework for muscle attachment
3
Q
Disadvantages of an exoskeleton
A
It can prevent growth, so the animals may have to shed their old skeleton at intervals and grow before the new one hardens
4
Q
How do animals without skeletons move?
A
Jellyfish - the water buoys them up
Earthworms - the pressure of the fluid inside their body presses out against their muscular body wall to support them
5
Q
What do bones and cartilage have?
A
Blood vessels and nerves
6
Q
What are the three main jibs of a skeleton?
A
Shape
Movement
Protection
7
Q
What is the structure of a bone?
A
Head - contains air spaces
Hollow shaft - contains marrow and blood vessels
Cartilage - covers the surface of the joints
Periosteum - a tough membrane covering the outer surface of bone
8
Q
What is ossification?
A
The process by which the cartilage in a bone is replaced by calcium and phosphates, hardening the structure of it
9
Q
What is the purpose of cartilage?
A
To allow children to grow as it is a living tissue
It can be susceptible to infection, but can grow and repair itself
10
Q
What is the epiphysis and diaphysis?
A
E - outer bone
D - inner bone
11
Q
What is a simple fracture?
A
Where the skin is broken but the bone is intact
12
Q
What is a greenstick fracture?
A
Where the bone is bent but not broken
13
Q
What is a compound fracture?
A
Where the bone breaks through the skin and is crushed
14
Q
What is used to view the state of bones?
A
X Ray
15
Q
What is a joint?
A
A place where two or more bones meet
16
Q
What are the five types of joints?
A
Immovable joint - fixed in place e.g. Skull
Hinge joint - allows movement in one plane e.g. Finger
Ball and socket joint - allows limbs to rotate e.g. Hip
Slightly moveable joint - e.g. Spine
Synovial joint - freely moveable - joined by ligaments which stretch
17
Q
How do muscles work?
A
In antagonistic pairs, so as one contracts the other relaxes
18
Q
What is the motion when moving your arm?
A
Elbow - pivot point
Hand - moves through a large distance
Muscles - exert a large force
19
Q
Describe the knee joint
A
Ligaments - hold the joint together
Synovial fluid - reduces friction
Synovial membrane - secretes synovial fluid
Cartilage - stops the bones from rubbing against each other
20
Q
What is the circulatory system?
A
Where the heart pumps blood around the body to carry oxygen to respiring cells so energy can be produced
21
Q
Why is the circulatory system called a closed system?
A
The blood flow is restricted to the blood vessels
22
Q
What is your pulse?
A
A measure of when the heart beats
23
Q
What happens during exercise?
A
Your skeletal muscles respire more and produce more waste carbon dioxide which can be toxic at high concentrations in the blood
This is detected by the brain which thus speeds up the heart rate so the blood with the carbon dioxide is taken to the lungs to be expelled from the body
24
Q
What hormone is produced during exercise?
A
Andrenaline
25
How can electrical impulses from the heart be monitored?
Using an electrocardiogram
26
What is the path of blood through the right side of the heart (to the lungs)?
Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium via the vena cava from the body -> It is then pumped through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle -> It is then pumped through the semi lunar valve up to the lungs through the pulmonary artery to become oxygenated
27
What is the path of blood through the left side of the heart (to the body)?
Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left atrium via the pulmonary vein from the lungs -> It is then pumped through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle -> It is then pumped out of the aorta to the rest of the body at a higher pressure
28
Which side of the heart pumps blood to the body and why?
The left because it is more muscular and so can generate a high enough pressure to pump the blood all the way around the body
29
Describe the cardiac cycle
The sinoatrial node produces electrical impulses -> These spread quickly across the two atria causing it to contract -> This forces open the AV valves and pushes the blood from the atria into the ventricles -> The atrioventricular node conducts the impulses to a special conducting muscle fibres (purkine fibres) which carry the impulses to the tip of the ventricles -> The two ventricles contract causing them to close the AV valves and pushes blood out the ventricles through the semi lunar valves -> The atria relaxes and fills with blood
30
What happens in a double circulatory system?
The blood gets pumped from the heart to the lungs to pick up oxygen (oxyhemoglobin) and back to the heart
The blood gets pumped to the intestine, where oxygen and glucose are removed, and to the rest of the body and then back to the heart
31
Amoeba
Rely on diffusion to take in oxygen
32
Fish
Have single-circulatory systems where the heart has only two chambers
Blood is pumped from the heart to the gills and then to the rest of the body to deliver oxygen
33
Insects
Have open circulatory systems, where the blood is not contained in blood vessels but fills up the body cavity
34
Name the blood vessels and their function
Artery - pumps oxygenated blood away from the heart
Vein - brings deoxygenated blood back to the heart and has valves to stop blood back-flow
Capillaries - allow diffusion so are permeable
35
What is a pacemaker?
A group of cells that control the rate at which the heart contracts
36
Where is a pacemaker implanted?
It is implanted just under the skin in the chest where a wire passes from it into a vein in the right atrium
If the AVN is damaged then the impulses do not travel that far so the wire goes down to the ventricle to make it contract
37
What is a hole in the heart?
Where a hole exists between the two atria, so deoxygenated blood mixes with oxygenated blood and less is carried to cells
38
What are faulty valves?
Valves that do not close properly (endocarditis) in the heart, causing blood back flow and a pool of blood to accumulate where they are (can lead to heart failure)
39
What is bypass surgery and when is it used?
The use of blood vessels from the leg to replace damaged arteries and restore blood flow when someone has a heart attack
40
What are the advantages of heart transplants?
An increased life expectancy
| Increased health
41
What are the disadvantages of heart transplants?
It is a complex operation
The new heart needs to be a tissue match to avoid rejection
The patient will need immunosuppressant drugs for the rest of their lives (trauma)
There is a long waiting list
42
What increases the risk of heart disease?
Consuming a high fat diet
Stress
Alcohol
Smoking
43
What are the four parts of the blood?
Red blood cells - haemoglobin carry oxygen around the body and have no nucleus
White blood cells - kill invading pathogens by producing antibodies that fight them
Platelets - spare cells in the blood that clot and form a scab when you cut yourself
Plasma - the liquid component of the blood that carries hormones and waste products etc,
44
Which vitamins help blood clot?
Vitamin K and Vitamin C
45
What is used to treat the abnormal clotting of blood in the body?
Anticoagulant drugs such as warfarin and aspirin
46
What disease can prevent you blood from clotting?
Haemophilia and thrombocytopenia
47
How does you blood clot?
Platelets in the blood are exposed to air -> They release an enzyme -> It coverts a soluble protein into insoluble fibrin -> The fibrin forms a mesh that traps red blood cells and a scab forms
48
What are the different blood types?
O - can donate blood to anyone as their red blood cells do not have any antigens
A - cannot receive G B blood, risk of coagulation
B - cannot receive G A blood, risk of coagulation
AB - can recurve any blood types as they have no antibodies in their plasm to reject antigens
49
What is Rhesus positive?
Where the blood has a D protein which negative blood produces antibodies for
50
Which blood group is a universal donor?
O
51
Which blood groups is a universal recipient?
AB
52
What is gaseous exchange?
The inhalation of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide as it is toxic and would lower the pH and disrupt enzyme activity
53
Gaseous exchange in fish
Blood flows from the heart to the gills -> Gills have filaments which gives them a large surface area -> Each filament is supplied with blood -> As the fish swims it gulps water into its mouth -> When it closes, the floor of its mouth raises and forces water out of the gills -> Oxygen is dissolved in water and diffuses into the blood around the gills -> Carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite way -> Oxygenated blood then flows to the fish's body organs
54
What is the path of air through your body?
Nose -> Larynx -> Trachea -> Bronchi -> Bronchioles -> Alveoli
55
What happens when you breathe in?
Your intercostal muscles contract causing the rib cage to move upwards and outwards
The diaphragm moves down and the volume of the chest cavity increases to let air fill the lungs
56
What is the pleural membrane, pleural space and pleural fluid for?
The pleural membrane covers the lungs and inside of the rib cage
The pleural space contains pleural fluid which allows the easy movement of the lungs during breathing and stops them from collapsing
57
What are the alveoli?
They are sacks in the lung which give it a large surface area to volume ratio for oxygen to diffuse into your blood stream
58
What are the properties of the alveoli to help oxygen diffuse into the blood and carbon dioxide to diffuse out?
Massive surface area
Moist lining (permeable)
Once cell thick
Very good blood supply
59
What specialised cells help keep your respiratory clean?
Mucus - traps dust and bacteria, without it infections or diseases can occur
Cilia - beats and wafts the pathogens up to the back of the throat ... for swallowing so that the stomach acid can kill them OR removal by coughing or blowing your nose
60
What are macrophages?
Special white blood cells that squeeze out of the capillaries and patrol the lung tissues and ingest foreign particles and pathogens
61
What is a spirometer?
It is used to measure a patients lung function
62
What is tidal air?
The amount of air breathed in and out in a cycle
63
What is vital air capacity?
The volume of air take in and out during a maximum breath
64
What is residual air?
The amount of air left in the lungs after a maximum breath
65
How often do pacemakers need to be replaced?
They have a long battery life and are often replaced every 10 years
66
How can there being a shortage of heart donors be tackled?
Have opt out donor cards
67
What procedures related to the heart are less traumatic than a heart replacement?
Heart valve replacement and artificial pacemakers
68
Why do frogs need to avoid drying out and why?
Their skin is permeable to gases, frogs are susceptible to excessive water loss.
They live in damp places but survive in drier habitats by having a layer of slime over the skin.
69
What happens during an asthma attack?
The lining of the airways becomes inflamed, causing a build up of fluid.
The muscles in the bronchi contract which makes the bronchi constrict and restrict the airways.
70
What are the causes of bronchitis and its symptoms?
Virus/bacteria or smoke
Counting out yellow-grey mucus, sore throat, wheezing, and blocked nose
71
What are the causes of asbestosis and its symptoms?
Asbestosis fibres trapped in the lungs
Inflammation and scarring in the alveoli, which can lead to cancer
72
What are the causes of cystic fibrosis and its symptoms?
Genetic and inherited
Mucus with trapped pathogen build up as the cilia are not hydrated enough to work, leading to chest infections and damage to the lungs
73
What are the causes of lung cancer and its symptoms?
Tar in tobacco in cigarettes
Cells lining the bronchioles keep on dividing, forming a tumour which reduces the surface area for gaseous exchange
Causes chest pain and a prolonged cough, with blood
74
Why does food have to be digested?
So that it can pass through the digestive system and the relevant bits can be absorbed into our blood stream for transport to our body tissues and organs for respiration
75
What is physical digestion?
Chewing your food in your mouth and squeezing food in your stomach
76
What is chemical digestion?
Where carbohydrates, fats and proteins are digested by enzymes in certain parts of the digestive system
77
What foods are broken down by which enzymes to produce what?
Carbohydrates - carbohydrase - mouth and small intestine - starch -> maltose -> glucose
Proteins - protease - stomach and small intestine - amino acids
Fats - lipase - small intestine - glycerol and fatty acids
78
What is bile?
A chemical produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder which neutralises stomach acids and emulsifiers fats, giving a larger surface area for loose enzymes to work on
79
What happens in the small intestine?
Large food molecules are broken down into smaller ones that diffuse into the blood supply through the villi in the small intestine
80
What makes the villi well adapted to their function?
They have a very good bloody supply
They have a large surface area (micro villi)
The lining of the villi is permeable
81
What happens in the large intestine?
It absorbs water and some minerals into the blood
82
What is Egestion?
When semi-solid waste left in the intestine if passed out of the anus
83
What are the three ways that our body excretes waste?
```
Carbon dioxide (produced during respiration and is poisonous so removed by the lungs by the brain increasing your breathing rate)
Urea (produced when excess amino acids are broken down in the liver into ammonia and then into urea by reacting with carbon dioxide and is removed by the kidneys)
Sweat (excreted through the skin to cool you down and get rid of excess salts which can stop your nerves from working properly)
```
84
What is Excretion?
When the body removes the waste products of digestion
85
What substances are filtered out of the kidneys?
Glucose
Salts
Water
Urea
86
What substances are reabsorbed into the blood in the kidneys?
All the glucose
Some salts
Some water
87
What are the filtering units in the kidneys called?
Nephrons
88
In what order do the processes in the kidneys occur?
Salt water regulation
Selective reabsorption
Ultrafiltration
90
What do nephrons consist of?
SALT WATER REGULATION: where some salts are reabsorbed into the bloodstream
SELECTIVE REABSORPTION: where useful substances enter the bloodstream
HIGH PRESSURE FILTRATION: Glomerulus, a network of capillaries, inside the Bowman's capsule
91
Bow does blood travel through the kidneys?
Blood enters your kidneys via the renal artery under high pressure -> Many arterioles branch off from the renal artery and one arteriole goes to each glomerulus -> Blood goes from the afferent arteriole into the glomerulus -> It then leaves the glomerulus in the efferent arteriole
92
How does ultrafiltration occur?
The efferent arteriole has a narrower diameter than the afferent arteriole which produces a bottleneck effect -> The blood cannot leave the glomerulus as fast as it is entering, so it is under high pressure, and the capillaries of the glomerulus are very leaky -> Substances with small molecules are filtered out of the blood -> They pass along the tubules of the nephron dissolved in liquid that was squeezed out from the glomerulus.
93
How does selective reabsorption occur?
From the first part of the nephron, all the useful substances are reabsorbed by selective reabsorption.
The loop of Henle, the rest of the tubule, and the collecting duct regulate the amount of salt and water in the body.
94
What happens in the event of low blood water level?
High salt concentration in blood -> Receptors in the hypothalamus detect this -> More ADH is secreted into the blood from the pituitary gland -> The kidney become more permeable so more water is absorbed -> Less urine fills the bladder
VICE VERSA FOR HIGH BLOOD WATER CONTENT
95
Explain how renal dialysis is carried out?
Blood is pumped into the dialysis for cleaning -> Saline is added to it -> Semi-permeable membrane between blood and dialysis fluid -> Fresh dialysis fluid is added to the dialysis machine -> Used dialysis fluid is removed from the dialysis machine -> Clean blood is returned to the patient
96
How is waste removed from the kidneys?
Via the Ureter, connected to the bladder
97
What are the genitals?
Primary sexual characteristics
98
What occurs during adolescence?
Puberty, production of sex hormones and growth of reproductive organs
99
What are the female sex hormones produced in the ovaries during puberty?
Oestrogen
| Progesterone
100
What are the parts of the female reproductive systems?
Ovary - where eggs mature
Fallopian tubes - where the egg is fertilised
Uterus - where the foetus develops
Cervix - the entrance to the uterus
Vagina - receives sperm from the penis during sexual reproduction
101
What are the make sex hormones produced in the testes during puberty?
Testosterone
102
What are the parts of the male reproductive systems?
Testes - where sperm are made
Sperm duct - where sperm is carried to the urethra
Seminal vesicles and prostrate gland - supply nutrients for the sperm
Penis - used to place sperm in the vagina
Urethra - opening of the penis
Scrotum - keeps the testes outside the body, cooler which is better for sperm development
103
What happens to females during puberty?
Breasts develop
Pubic hair and underarm hair grows
Hops widen
Menstruation occurs
104
What happens to males during puberty?
```
The voice breaks
Hair grows on the face and body
The body becomes more muscular
Genitals develop
The testes start making sperm
```
105
What happens during the menstrual cycle?
Day 1 - bleeding starts
Day 4 - lining starts to rebuild
Day 14 - an egg is relaxes
Day 28 - the lining stays thick and wait for a fertilised egg, else breaks down again
106
Describe the hormones related to the menstrual cycle.
The pituitary gland in the brain releases a hormone called FSH -> FSH causes an egg in one of the ovaries to mature ->It also stimulates the ovaries to make the hormone
oestrogen -> Oestrogen stimulates the pituitary gland to release another hormone, LH -> LH triggers the release of the egg (ovulation) from
the ovary -> Oestrogen also inhibits further production of FSH and it repairs the uterus lining (the endometrium) -> Progesterone maintains the uterus lining and inhibits LH
107
What is conception?
When a sperm and egg join
108
What is contraception?
Preventing pregnancy
109
How does birth control work?
It mimics pregnancy by increasing oestrogen and progesterone levels to inhibit the release of FSH and LH
110
What are possible causes of infertility?
Blocked fallopian tubes or sperm ducts
Eggs do not develop
Eggs p are not released from ovaries
The testes do not produce enough sperms
111
How does in vitro fertilisation work?
The woman is injected with FSH, which stimulates her ovaries to produce eggs -> The eggs are then collected from the woman and mixed with the man’s sperm in a glass dish -> Healthy sperms are selected and one is injected into each egg -> The fertilised eggs begin to develop into embryos -> Two are then chosen and
inserted into the woman’s uterus
112
What are other treatments of infertility?
Artificial insemination - when sperm is donated and inserted into a woman's vagina
Egg donation - when eggs are donated to another woman who cannot make them
Surrogacy - an embryo is planted into the surrogates uterus, via IVF, as the biological mother may not have had hers removed
Ovary transplants - used restore the fertility of women who undergo early menopause and are no longer fertile, or who have had radiation treatment for cancer
113
Pros and cons of fertility treatment net
Pros - infertile parents can have children
| Cons - the treatment is expensive, carries risks and may not work at all
114
What are used to check for foetal development?
Ultrasounds
115
How is Down's syndrome checked for?
Amniocentesis - doctors can insert a needle into the uterus and take some amniotic fluid containing fetal cells which are grown in a lab so that they divide and their chromosomes can be observed under a microscope and counted
116
Cons of fetal screening are.
If the fetus has an extra chromosome, the couple have to decide whether to terminate the pregnancy.
Makes disabled people is society undervalued.
117
At birth what is measure by the midwives of the baby?
Head circumference
Body length
Mass
118
What does poor growth in a baby indicate?
It's pituitary gland may not be producing enough growth hormone, which can then be injected
119
What are the five main stages of human growth?
Infancy - brain development, fastest rate
Childhood - slower rate than at infancy
Puberty - reproductive system, growth spurts
Adulthood - growth slows down or stops
Old age - physical disabilities start to occur
120
What factors affect human growth?
```
Genes
Diet
Exercise
Hormones
Health and disease
```
121
What factors cause high life expectancy?
```
Less industrial disease and accidents
Healthier diets with fewer deficiencies
Better housing
Improved lifestyle
Vaccinations
Better treatments
```
122
What problems can an increased life expectancy cause?
A large ageing population
Strain on healthcare system
Affect job prospects for younger people
State lane ion system will need to be reevaluated
123
At birth what is measure by the midwives of the baby?
Head circumference
Body length
Mass
124
What does poor growth in a baby indicate?
It's pituitary gland may not be producing enough growth hormone, which can then be injected
125
What are the five main stages of human growth?
Infancy - brain development, fastest rate
Childhood - slower rate than at infancy
Puberty - reproductive system, growth spurts
Adulthood - growth slows down or stops
Old age - physical disabilities start to occur
126
What factors affect human growth?
```
Genes
Diet
Exercise
Hormones
Health and disease
```
127
What factors cause high life expectancy?
```
Less industrial disease and accidents
Healthier diets with fewer deficiencies
Better housing
Improved lifestyle
Vaccinations
Better treatments
```
128
What problems can an increased life expectancy cause?
A large ageing population
Strain on healthcare system
Affect job prospects for younger people
State lane ion system will need to be reevaluated
129
External mechanical replacements for body parts
Heart–lung machines, used during open heart surgery to divert blood from the heart
Kidney dialysis machines, used to filter the blood of people with renal (kidney) failure
Mechanical ventilators, used to aid breathing in patients whose rib cage muscles are paralysed
130
Internal mechanical devices
Pacemakers
Artificial hearts
Artificial knee and hip joints
Eye lenses
131
What do medical engineer need to consider when designing these mechanical implants?
Size
Battery life
Body reactions
Strength
132
What are examples of organ transplants?
Blood transfusions - live donor and blood types must be matched
Cornea transplants - dead donor and no risk of rejection
Heart transplants - healthy heart to replace a diseased one
Lung transplants - healthy lungs to replace a diseased one
Kidney transplants - live or dead donor as you can survive with just one
Bone marrow transplants - live donor and tissue type must be matched, can treat leukaemia
