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Biology Gcse Full 25-26 > B6-Preventing And Treating Disease > Flashcards

B6-Preventing And Treating Disease Flashcards

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1
Q

Which type of blood cells fight disease?

A

White blood cells

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2
Q

Name the type of white blood cell that engulfs pathogens

A

Phagocyte

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3
Q

Name the type of white blood cell that produces antibodies

A

Lymphocyte

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4
Q

When you get a vaccination what does the doctor actually inject you with?

A

A weakened/dead form of the pathogen that still retains the antigens (receptors).

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5
Q

What is an antigen?

A

All cells (including human body cells) have receptors on their surface. These are called antigens.

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6
Q

Define herd immunity.

A

Herd immunity involves vaccinating a large proportion of the population against a certain pathogen (e.g. flu vaccine).This is to reduce the number of people getting the disease and therefore it reduces the spread of the disease.

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7
Q

Explain how a person develops immunity to a certain disease after receiving a vaccination.

A

Dead/weakened/inactive pathogen is injected into the patient’s bloodstream. The pathogen still retains the antigens.
Specific lymphocyte recognises the specific antigens and produces large amounts of the correct antibody.
Pathogen is killed by the antibodies.

Memory lymphocytes remain in the bloodstream.
This provides immunity to that specific pathogen.
If the same pathogen re-enters the body, the white blood cells respond more quickly to produce large amounts of the correct antibodies, preventing infection.

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8
Q

What is a monoclonal antibody?

A

Monoclonal antibodies are produced from a single clone of cells,consisting of identical antibody molecules.

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9
Q

When a B lymphocyte fuses with a tumour cell, what is the resulting cell formed called?

A

A hybridoma cell

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10
Q

Monoclonal antibodies are present in pregnancy testing kits. How do monoclonal antibodies indicate pregnancy?

A

The blood of pregnant women contains a hormone called hCG that is made early in pregnancy.

Tiny amounts of this hormone are passed out of the body in the urine.

Monoclonal antibodies in the pregnancy test bind to the HCG hormone if it is present.

This produces a colour change and positive result.

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11
Q

How do monoclonal antibodies work?

A

The antibodies are specific to one binding site on one particular antigen and so are able to target a specific chemical or specific cells in the body.

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12
Q

Name some possible side effects of monoclonal antibodies.

A

Fever
Chills
Vomiting
Nausea

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13
Q

What are hybridomas?

A

cells created during the production of monoclonal antibodies by the fusion of an antibody-specific lymphocyte and a tumour cell

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14
Q

What is a vaccine?

A

dead or inactive pathogenic material used in vaccination to develop immunity to a disease in a healthy person

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15
Q

Describe how “cadida albicans” Monoclonal Antibodies and a fluorescent dye could be used to see if there are any “cadida albicans” on a slide

A

The monoclonal antibodies should first bind with the fluorescent dye. The fluorescent mAbs should then be placed on the slide. If “cadida albicans” is present, the monoclonal antibodies would bind to the antigens on the pathogen. This would then be able to be viewed under a microscope to see if there are any pathogens present.

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16
Q

Suggest 1 reason why mAbs made using human lymphocytes are more successful in treating diseases in humans than mAbs made using mice lymphocytes

A

The body is less likely to reject the mAbs made from human lymphocytes, whereas it is more likely to reject the mAbs made from mice lymphocytes

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17
Q

What type of disease are monoclonal antibodies often used to treat?

A

Cancer

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18
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies used to treat cancer?

A

They may trigger the immune system to recognise, attack, and destroy cancer cells

They may block receptors on the surface of cancer cells and so stop the cells dividing and growing

They may carry toxic drugs or radioactive substances which stops the cells growing and dividing

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19
Q

What are the advantages of using monoclonal antibodies to treat cancer?

A

Unlike other treatments, it can treat cancer without harming any other cells in the body

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20
Q

How are viruses introduced to the lymphocytes?

A

They are injected into the mouse and then the lymphocytes are removed after they have formed an immune response

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21
Q

How do monoclonal antibodies enter our body?

A

Monoclonal antibodies are usually injected into the body, often through a drip into a vein (intravenous injection) or sometimes as a subcutaneous injection (under the skin).

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22
Q

Why are monoclonal antibodies injected

A

They are proteins, so if you swallowed them, your digestive enzymes would break them down before they could work.

By injecting them into the bloodstream, they can circulate quickly and bind to their specific target (e.g. cancer cells, viruses, or harmful substances).

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23
Q

What are antibiotics?

A

Antibiotics are chemicals that damage bacteria and eventually kill them. Each types of antibiotic interferes with the bacteria’s life processes, e.g. making a cell wall.

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24
Q

Can antibiotics kill viruses?

A

No. They do not kill viruses, protozoa or fungi.

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25
Name 3 common antibiotics.
Penicillin, Vancomycin, Erythromycin
26
What is meant by antibiotic efficacy?
Antibiotic efficacy is how effective an antibiotic is at killing a certain type of bacteria.
27
Explain the stages how bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics.
Antibiotics kill individual bacterial pathogens of the non-resistant strain. 2. Resistant/mutated pathogens survive and reproduce. 3. The population of the resistant strain of pathogens increases because they are not affected/killed by the antibiotic. 4. The resistant strain will then spread because people are not immune to it and there is no effective treatment.
28
How should antibiotics be prescribed and taken?
Only by a doctor after a consultation - Should not be prescribed for mild infections. - Should not be prescribed for viral infections. - Make sure the patient finishes the full course
29
Why do antibiotics not kill virsues?
Antibiotics work by disrupting the bacterial cell structures e.g. cell wall. Viruses replicate INSIDE cells so antibiotics can not kill them.
30
Where did the heart drug digitalis originate from?
It originated from the plant - foxgloves.
31
From what plant does the painkiller aspirin originate from?
The painkiller aspirin originates from willow.
32
From which microorganism does the antibiotic penicillin originate?
Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming from the Penicillium mould.
33
Why do new drugs have to be tested before use?
To ensure….. • They are safe • Do not have any toxic side effects • The correct dose is given • They are stable
34
What are the 4 stages of drug testing?
1) Pre-clinical trials 2) Phase 1 clinical trials 3) Phase 2 clinical trials 4) Phase 3 clinical trials
35
In a pre-clinical trial what are the drugs tested on?
Pre-clinical trials: this is where drugs are tested on cells, tissues and live animals e.g. mice. This is to ensure there are no unwanted side effects.
36
In a clinical trial what are drugs tested on?
Clinical trials: this is where the drug is tested on humans.
37
What is a double blind trial
This is a drugs trial where some patients receive the active drugs and some patients receive the placebo. Neither the patient nor the doctors knows who has received which treatment.
38
What is a placebo?
A placebo is a substance that does not contain the active drug. It has no therapeutic effect but may have a psychological affect. A placebo is used as a control in testing new drugs.
39
In phase 1 clinical trials, who is the drug tested on?
Phase 1: drug is tested on healthy volunteers. Low doses are used.
40
In phase 2 clinical trials, who is the drug tested on?
Phase 2: drug is tested on a small number of people who actually have the disease (i.e. patients). A double blind trial is used.
41
In phase 3 clinical trials, who is the drug tested on?
Phase 3: larger numbers of patients are used. Patients are given the drug or placebo. This is to verify the efficacy/effectiveness of the drug and to determine the correct dose.
42
How to stop the spread of pathogens in large groups
the spread of pathogens can be reduced by immunising a large proportion of the population.
43
What do Painkillers do
(like paracetamol) do not kill pathogens — they relieve symptoms (e.g. fever or pain) while the immune system fights the infection.
44
Why are anti viral drugs hard to develop
Antiviral drugs are harder to develop because viruses reproduce inside body cells, but some exist to slow down how fast a virus multiplies (e.g. for HIV).
45
Negatives of antibiotics
Antibiotics cannot kill viral pathogens.
46
What can painkillers and other medicines be used to treat
Painkillers and other medicines are used to treat the symptoms of disease but do not kill pathogens.They can kill bacteria.
47
Why is it difficult to develop drugs that kill viruses
Due to the possible damage to the body's tissues.
48
Why are scientists worried about the future of antibiotics
the emergence of strains resistant to antibiotics is of great concern.
49
How have antibiotics benefited many?
The use of antibiotics has greatly reduced deaths from infectious bacterial diseases.
50
Overview of all the testing in new drugs
Preclinical testing is done in a laboratory using cells, tissues and live animals. Clinical trials use healthy volunteers and patients. • Very low doses of the drug are given at the start of the clinical trial. • If the drug is found to be safe, further clinical trials are carried out to find the optimum dose for the drug. • In double blind trials, some patients are given a placebo.
51
What are drugs tested for when testing them
New drugs are extensively tested for toxicity, efficacy and the optimum dose.
52
What do new medical drugs have to go through before they can be used
New medical drugs have to be tested and trialled before being used to check that they are safe and effective.
53
How are monoclonal antibodies made
They are produced by stimulating mouse lymphocytes to make a particular antibody. They do this by inserting the mouse with antigens which we want our antibodies to bind to.The lymphocytes are combined with a particular kind of tumour cell to make a cell called a hybridoma cell. The hybridoma cell can both divide and make the antibody. Single hybridoma cells are cloned to produce many identical cells that all produce the same antibody. A large amount of the antibody can be collected and purified.
54
Uses of monoclonal antibodys
• For diagnosis such as in pregnancy tests. • In laboratories to measure the levels of hormones and other chemicals in blood, or to detect pathogens. • In research to locate or identify specific molecules in a cell or tissue by binding to them with a fluorescent dye. • To treat some diseases: for cancer the monoclonal antibody can be bound to a radioactive substance, a toxic drug or a chemical which stops cells growing and dividing. It delivers the substance to the cancer cells without harming other cells in the body
55
How were drugs originally extracted
from plants and microorganisms.
56
How are most drugs made today
most drugs are synthesised by chemists in laboratories, but often based on natural substances.
57
What is the legal requirement in the uk for testing drugs
Must be tested on animals and cells before moving to humans (legal requirement in the UK).
58
order the events that led to the production of penicillin.
1928 - Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin by accident when mould killed bacteria in a petri dish. 1930s - Fleming couldn't purify it, so not much progress was made. • 1939 - Howard Florey and Ernst Chain began working on how to extract and produce penicillin. • 1941 - First successful test of penicillin on a human. • 1942-1945 - Mass production of penicillin during World War II to treat soldiers.
59
What is morphine made from
Opium poppy
60
discuss the advantages and disadvantages of looking for new drugs from living organisms
Adv:Can be effective,can help many lives,biodiversity offers variety Dis:Requires a lot of time and money,risk of extinction
61
suggest why mould naturally produces antibiotics.
In nature, moulds live in the same environments as bacteria (like soil or rotting food). By producing antibiotics, moulds can protect themselves and reduce competition, giving them a better chance to survive and grow
62
describe how antibiotics work.
Antibiotics kill or inhibit bacteria without harming human cells. • They target bacterial structures or processes that human cells do not have. • Some antibiotics break down bacterial cell walls, causing the bacteria to burst (e.g., penicillin). • Others block protein synthesis or interfere with DNA replication, stopping bacteria from growing and reproducing. • Antibiotics do not work on viruses because viruses replicate inside host cells and lack the structures antibiotics target.
63
explain why the results of drug trials are published in journals.
To allow for peer review,to share knowledge,to check for safety and effectiveness
64
What is an antibodie
A protein made by our white blood cells/b lymphocytes that helps fight of diseases/infection
65
What is an antigen
An antigen is a protein (or molecule) found on the surface of a pathogen (like a virus or bacterium) that the immune system recognises as foreign.
66
What happens when an antigen enters the body:
B-lymphocytes detect the antigen on the pathogen. The specific B-lymphocyte (that matches that antigen) is activated. That B-lymphocyte divides rapidly by mitosis to make lots of clones. Most of those clones become plasma cells, which produce huge amounts of antibodies. The antibodies bind to the antigens, helping to destroy or neutralise the pathogen
67
Why is it important to finish a full course of antibiotics?
Stopping early may leave surviving bacteria that develop resistance and multiply.
68
What are aseptic techniques and why are they important in preventing disease?
Methods like sterilising equipment, wearing gloves, and using disinfectants to prevent contamination and the spread of pathogens in medical/lab settings.
69
How are monoclonal antibodies used to detect blood clots?
They are designed to bind to proteins found in clots and are attached to a dye so they can be seen in scans.
70
How can antibiotic-resistant bacteria like MRSA spread between people?
Through direct contact, contaminated surfaces, poor hygiene, or sharing personal items. Hospitals are especially high-risk due to frequent antibiotic use.
71
Another way of saying monoclonal antibodys
mAbs
72
Why are some people given a placebo in clinical trial/testing?
Act as a control to remove bias
73
What is the dose
How much of a drug is given to a patient, and how many times a day and so on.
74
What is a pathogen?
Answer: A microorganism (e.g., bacteria, virus, fungus, or protist) that causes disease.
75
What are the main routes of pathogen transmission?
Pathogens spread via air (e.g., coughing), water, food, direct contact, or vectors
76
What lifestyle factors can help prevent infections?
A healthy diet, regular exercise, and good hygiene strengthen the immune system and reduce infection risk.
77
What are the benefits and potential risks of vaccination?
Benefits: Prevents diseases, contributes to herd immunity, can eradicate diseases (e.g., smallpox). Risks: Mild side effects like fever or soreness; rare allergic reactions.
78
What ethical issues arise in drug testing?
Animal testing raises concerns about cruelty; placebo use in trials may deny patients effective treatment.
79
What are some limitations of using monoclonal antibodies?
High cost, need for repeated injections, and potential immune reactions to non-human monoclonal antibodies.
80
How do antitoxins produced by white blood cells help fight disease?
Antitoxins bind to and neutralize toxins produced by pathogens, preventing damage to body tissues.
81
What percentage of the population needs to be vaccinated for herd immunity to be effective?
90-95%
82
What is an example of a monoclonal antibody used in cancer treatment?
Trastuzumab
83
Why are monoclonal antibodies used in pregnancy tests?
They are highly specific, binding only to hCG, and sensitive, detecting low levels of hCG, ensuring accurate and early detection.
84
What does a positive pregnancy test result show, and what does the control line indicate?
A positive result shows two lines (test line + control line), indicating hCG is present. The control line confirms the test is working correctly.
85
What could cause a false positive or false negative in a pregnancy test?
False positive: Medical conditions (e.g., ovarian cysts) or hCG-containing medications. False negative: Testing too early or using dilute urine.
86
What is toxicity
If drugs are toxic
87
What is efficacy
If the drug is effective
88
What is dosage
How much of the drug is used for medicine
89
What is the licensing stage
If the medicine passes all the tests they are tested for safety

Biology Gcse Full 25-26 (11 decks)

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