BCOM Exam 1

Question 1

What are the eight essential components of communication? What do they look like in real life?

Chapter 1.

Answer 1

Source: The source imagines, creates, and sends the message.

• In a public speaking situation, the source is the person giving the speech.

Message: The message is the stimulus or meaning produced by the source for the receiver or audience.

• Report crafted so the speech with tone, body language, and apperance- in a report, with writing style,puncuation, heading, and formatting.

Channel:The channel is the way in which a message or messages travel between source and receiver.

• Think of T.V. Channels.
• Spoken channels include face-to-face conversations, speeches, telephone converations, voice mails, radio,*
  Written Channels include letter, memorandums, purchase orders, invoices, newpaper, blogs, email, texas messages,, tweets.

Receiver: The Receiver receives the message from the source, analyzing and interpreting the message in ways both intended and unintended by the source.

• The quarterback may intend for the receiver to “catch” his message in one way, but the receiver
  may see things differently and miss the football (the intended meaning) altogether.
  As a receiver you listen, see, touch, smell, and/or taste to receive a message.

Feedback: Feedback is composed of messages the receiver sends back to the source.

• Feedback also provides an opportunity for the receiver or audience to ask for clarification, to agree or disagree, or to indicate that the source could make the message more interesting. As the amount of feedback increases, the accuracy of communication also increases
• If you followed up your message with a request for feedback (“Does this
  make sense? Do any of you have any questions?”) you might have an opportunity to clarify your message, and to
  find out whether any of the sales reps believed your suggestion would not work with their customers.

Environment: The environment is the atmosphere, physical, and psychological, where you send and receive messages.

• The environment can include the tables, chairs, lighting, and sound equipment that are in the
  room. The room itself is an example of the environment. The environment can also include factors like formal dress, that may indicate whether a discussion is open and caring or more professional and formal. People may be more likely to have an intimate conversation when they are physically close to each other.
• As a speaker, your environment will impact and play a role in your speech. It’s always a good idea to go check out where you’ll be speaking before the day of
  the actual presentation.

Context: The context of the communication interaction involves the setting, scene, and expectations of the individuals involved.

• A professional communication context may involve business suits (environmental cues) that directly or indirectly influence expectations of language and behavior among the participants.
• When you came to class, you came from
  somewhere. So did the person seated next to you, as did the instructor

Interference: Interference, also called noice, can come from any cource. Anything that blocks or changes the source’s intended meaning of the message.

• For example, if you drove a car to work or school, chances are you were surrounded by noise. Car horns, billboards, or perhaps the radio in your car interrupted your thoughts, or your conversation with a passenger.
• Psychological noise is what happens when your thoughts occupy your attention while you are hearing, or reading, a message.

Question 2

What are the different types of interference/noise one can experience?

Chapter 1

Answer 2

• Car horns
• Billboards
• Radio interruption
• Psychological noise can occupy attention while hearing, reading
• Your boss asks for last month’s sales figure, and analysis of current sales projections and sales from the same month for the past 5 years. Just sending last months and leave the office. By thinking about how you wanted to respond to the message, this prevented you from reading attentively enough to understand the whole message.
• Being hungry
• Office being hot and stuffy

Question 3

What is the difference between the transactional model and the constructivist model?

Chapter 1

Answer 3

Transactional:
* Rather than looking at the source sending a message and someone receiving it as two distinct acts, researchers often view communication as a transactional process. with actions often happening at the same time.
* The distinction between source and receiver is blurred in conversational turn-taking, for example, where both participants play both roles simultaneously.

Constructivist:
* Researchers have also examined the idea that we all construct our own interpretations of the message.
* What I said and what you heard may be different.
* we focus on the negotiated meaning, or common ground, when trying to describe communication (Pearce & Cronen, 1980)
* Coke, Soda, Pop.
* In order to communicate, you must each realize what the term means to the other person, and
establish common ground, in order to fully understand the request and provide an answer.

Question 4

Identify examples of the five types of context

Chapter 1

Answer 4

Intrapersonal Communication: Involves one person; it is often called “self-talk”
* have you ever told yourself how you did after you wrote a document or gave a presentation? As you “talk with yourself” you are engaged in intrapersonal communication.

Interpersonal Communication: Normally involves two people, and can range from intimate and very personal to formal and impersonal.
* You may carry on a conversation with a loved one, sharing a serious concern.
* You may have a brief conversation about plans for the weekend with the security guard on your way home.

Group Communication: Is a dynamic process where a small number of people engage in conversation.
* Group communication is generally defined as involving three to eight people. The larger the group, the more likely it is to break down into smaller groups.

Public Communication:One person speaks to a group of people: the same is true of public written commmunication, where one person writes a message to be read by a small or large group.
* The speaker or writer may ask questions, and engage the audience in a disccusion. (In writing, examples aree an e-mail discussion or a point-counter-point series of letters to the editor)
* In a public speaking situation, the group normally defers to the speaker.
* Boss speaks to everyone, sales team listening without interruption.
* The boss, as a public speaker, recognizes that intrapersonal communication (thoughts of the individual members) or interpersonal communication (communication between team members)

Mass Communication: Involves sending a single message to a group.
* Mass media is a powerful force in modern society. It allows communicate our message to a large number of people, but we are limted in our ability to tailor our message to specific audiences.

Question 5

What is Egalitarian

Chapter 1

Answer 5

The word “egalitarian” comes from the root “equal.” To be egalitarian is to believe in basic equality: that all
people should share equally in the benefits and burdens of a society. It means that everyone is entitled to the same respect, expectations, access to information, and rewards of participation in a group.

Question 6

What is the semantic triangle?

Chapter 2

Answer 6

• This triangle illustrates how the word (which is really nothing more than a combination of four letters) refers to the thought, which then refers to the thing itself.
• What is the Semantic triangle in communication?
  The triangle of meaning is a model of communication that indicates the relationship between a thought, symbol, and referent and highlights the indirect relationship between the symbol and referent

Question 7

What are the three different types of messages and their functions?

Chapter 2

Answer 7

Primary:Refer to the intentional content, both verbal and nonverbal. These are the words or ways you choose to express yourself and communicate your message.
* For example, if you are sitting at your desk and a coworker stops by to ask you a question, you may say, “here, have a seat.” These words are your primary message.

Secondary:Refer to the unintentional content, both verbal and nonverbal. Your audience will form impressions of your intentional messages, both negative and positive, over which you have no control.
* Perceptions of physocal; attractiveness, age, gender, or ethnicity or even simple mannerisms and patterns of speech may unintentionally influence the message.

Auxiliary: Refer to the intentional and unintional ways a primary message is communicated.
* This may include vocal infelction, gestures and posture, or rate of speech that influence the interpretation or preception of your message.

Question 8

What is a residual message?

Chapter 2

Answer 8

A message or thought that stays with your audience well after the communication is finished, is an important part of your message.

Ask yourself of the following:
* What do I want my listeners or readers to remember?
* What information do I want to have the audience retain or act upon?
* What do I want the audience to do?

Question 9

What are the rules of language (syntax, semantics, context)?

Chapter 2

Answer 9

Syntactic Rules: Govern the order of words in a sentence.Think the rhyme and rythum of a sentence.
Sentences can be re-arragned but it must still make sence.
* “Please come to the meeting on Wednesday at
twelve noon in the auditorium.” But it would be incorrect to say, “Please to the auditorium on Wednesday in the meeting at twelve noon come.

Semantic Rules:Govern the meaning of words and how to interpret them. Semantics is the study of meaning in language.
* It considers what words mean, or are intended to mean, as opposed to their sound, spelling, grammatical function, and so on.
* For example, “destination” and “last stop” technically mean the same thing, but students of semantics analyze their subtle shades of meaning.

Contextual Rules: Govern the meaning and word choice according to context and socail custom.
* “How do you like working with Carol?” and, after a long pause, Greg answered, “She always meets her deadlines.” Are there factors in the context of the question or social customs that would influence the meaning of Greg’s statement?

Question 10

Paradigms

Chapter 2

Answer 10

A clear point of view involving theroies, laws, and/or generlizations that provide a frameowkr for undertanding, tend to form and become set around key validity claims, or statements of the way things work.

Question 11

How do we assign meaning to words (denotative v. connotative)? How do the majority of communication problems occur?

Chapter 2

Answer 11

Denotative Meaning: Is the common meaning, often found in the dictionary.

Connotative meaning: Often not found in the dictionary buy in the community of user itself. It can involve an emotional association with a word, postitive or negative, and can be individual or collective, but is not universal.
* For example, I am feeling very blue today. Here blue refers to sad.

Question 12

What is the difference between abstract and concrete language?

Chapter 2

Answer 12

Abstract: relating to or involving general ideas or qualities rather than specific people, objects, or actions. abstract thinking.
* abstract ideas/concepts such as love and hate. “Honesty” is an abstract word. The word “poem” is concrete, the word “poetry” is abstract.

Concrete:Concrete communication implies being particular and clear rather than fuzzy and general. Concreteness strengthens the confidence.
* Concrete message has following features: It is supported with specific facts and figures. It makes use of words that are clear and that build the reputation.

Question 13

What are the obstacles to communication (e.g., clichés, jargon, slang, sexist and racist language, euphemisms, and doublespeak)?

Chapter 2

Answer 13

Cliche: A once-clever word or phrase that has lost its impact through overuse.
* Cliches are sometimes a symptom of lazy communication- the person useing the cliche hasn’t bothered to search for orignial words to convey the intended meaning.

Jargon:Occupation-specific language used by people in a given profession.

Slang:Is the use of existing or newly invented words to takethe place of standard or traditional words with the intent of adding an unconventional, nonstandards, humorous, or rebillious effect.

Sexist Language:Uses gender as a discrimination factor.
* Referring to adult women as “Girls”

Racist Language:Disriminates against members of a given race or ethnic group.
* “Those people” or “You know how THEY are.”

Euphemisms: Sbustituting an acceptable word for an offensive, controversial, or unacceptable onr that conveys the same or similar meaning.
* “How’s my favorite sanitation engineer this morning?”

Doublespeak: Is the deliberate use of a word to disguise, obscure, or change meaning.
* “We insure companies with up to twenty thoungs lives.”
* “How does it feel to be downsized?”

Question 14

What are signposts, summaries, foreshadowing, and repetition?

Chapter 2

Answer 14

Signposts(or indicators): Are key words that alert the audience to a change in topic, a tangential explanation, an example, or a conclusion.
* Common signposts include
* “on the one hand,”
* “on the other hand,”
* “the solution to this problem is,”
* “the reason for this is,”
* “for example,”
* “to illustrate,”
* “in conclusion”
* “in summary.”

Foreshadowing:Foreshadowing is a literary device that is utilized to give a hint or indication of a future event in the story.
* These internal summaries help your audience keep track of progress as your message
continues.
* If you begin by stating that there are four main items needed for the kit, you are foreshadowing
your message and helping your audience to watch or listen for four items.

Repetition: Repetition is a method of communication that can add clarity to your messages and can reinforce the information that you’re sending by increasing the likelihood of message retention
* Similarly, in his famous “I Have a Dream” speech,
Martin Luther King Jr. repeated the phrases “I have a dream” and “let freedom ring” with unforgettable effect.

Question 15

What are the differences between attitudes, beliefs, and values?

Chapter 3

Answer 15

Attitudes:Learned predispositions to a concept or object.

• Subject to change: I enjoyed the writing exercise in class today.

Beliefs:Convictions or expressions of confidence.

• Can change over time: This course is important because I may use the communication skills I am learning in my career.

Values:Ideals that guide or behavior.
* Generally long lasting: Effective communication is important.

Question 16

What is self-concept?

Chapter 3

Answer 16

Self-Concept:Putting your self-image and self-esteem together yields your your central identity and set of beliefs about who you are and what you are capable of accomplishing.

Self-Concept: refers to the overall idea of who a person thinks he or she is.
* If I said, “Tell me who you are,” your answers would be clues as to how you see yourself, your self-concept.

Self-Concept: is how we perceive our behaviors, abilities, and unique characteristics.
* For example, beliefs such as “I am a good friend” or “I am a kind person” are part of an overall self-concept

Question 17

What are the looking-glass self and the self-fulfilling prophecy?

Chapter 3

Answer 17

Looking-glass:we look to others and how
they view us, treat us, and interact with us to gain insight of our identity.
* the process wherein individuals base their sense of self on how they believe others view them. Using social interaction as a type of “mirror,” people use the judgments they receive from others to measure their own worth, values, and behavior.

Self-fulfilling Prophecy:process through which an originally false expectation leads to its own confirmation. In a self-fulfilling prophecy an individual’s expectations about another person or entity eventually result in the other person or entity acting in ways that confirm the expectations.

Question 18

What factors influence selection?

Chapter 3

Answer 18

Selection Exposure: Both information we choose to pay attention to and information that we choose to ingnore, or that is unavailable to us.
* in a class you may have been required to view a student-created YouTube video presentation on which is better for you, Gatorade or water. As your levels of exposure to stimuli influence your decisions, you may think, “Oh, I’ve heard this before,” and tune the speaker out.

Selective Attention: involves focusing on one
stimulus, like the image of an attractive classmate, and tuning out a competing stimulus, like the instructor’s voice.

Selective Retention:involves choosing to remember one stimulus over another.
* You may be out walking and spot a friend from the same class. Your friend may say, “The program we had to watch for class said Gatorade has trans fat in it. Do you think that’s true?” and you may be at a loss, having no memory of hearing any such thing because, while you were present in your room, you were paying attention to
other stimuli.

Question 19

What are Gestalt principles and how can they relate to business communication?

Chapter 3

Answer 19

Proximity:Organization based on realtionship of space to objects
* Example: Next to me on the beach, I see my daughter playing with her pail and shovel; in the middle distance, a trio of kayakers paddle by; farther away, I see several power boats, and in the far distance, the green shore of Long Island.

Continuity:Drawing connections between things that occur in sequence.
* Example: I am beginning to notice a pattern in the absentee rate in our department. For the past year, more workers have been absent on the first Friday of the month than on other days. I expect we will again have many absences next Friday, as it is the first Friday of the month.

Similarity:Grouping things or concepts by properties they share.
* Example: How to guide.
* 1. Decrative material 2. Candle body 3. Tools.

Uniformity/Homogeneity:Nothing ways in which concepts or objects are alike.
* Example: Ford Focus, Ford Lightning, Ford Taurus.

Figure and Ground:Emphasis on a single item that sounds out from its surroundings.
* Example: On a rock in Copenhagen Harbor stands the small statue of The Little Mermaid, a memorial to one of Denmark’s most beloved citizens, Hans Christian Andersen.

Symmetry: Balancing objects or ideas equally from one side to the toher.
* Example: Representing the conservative viewpoint was Wall Street Journal correspondent John Emshwiller; the liberal viewpoint was argued by New York Times columnist Paul Krugman.

Closure:Tendency to use previous knowledge to fill in the gaps in an incomplete idea or picture.
* Example: The wording of the memo was, “It is important for all employees to submit their health insurance enrollment selections no than November 1,” but everyone understood that it should have said, “no later than November 1.”

Question 20

What are the 3 stages of perception?

Chapter 3

Answer 20

Selection:The action of sorting competing messages or choosing stimuli.
* You select what to pay attention to based on what is important to you, or what you value, and that is different for each person.

Interpretation:After selection and organization, interpretation is the third step in the perception process. From your past experiences combined with your current expectations, you assign meaning to the current stimuli.

Organization: Is the process of sorting information into logical catergories or series.

Perceptions are influenced by how we select, organize, and interpret words and ideas.

Question 21

How do culture, stereotypes, primary/recency, and perceptual sets impact perception?

Chapter 3/ Not solid on this question.

Answer 21

Sterotypes:is a generalization about a group or category of people that can have a powerful influence on how we perceive others and their communication behavior.19 Stereotyping is a three-part process

Primary/recency:The Primacy/Recency Effect is the observation that information presented at the beginning (Primacy) and end (Recency) of a learning episode tends to be retained better than information presented in the middle.

Preceptual Set:a predisposition to perceive only what we want or expect to perceive. An equally valid motto might therefore be “I’ll see it when I believe it.”

Question 22

What are the different types of general speech purposes?

Chapter 10

Answer 22

Speech to Inform: Increase the audience knowldge, teach about a topic pr ossie, and share your expertise.

Speech to demonstrate: Show the audience how to use, operate, or do something.

Speech to Presuade: Influence the audience by presenting arguments to change attitude, beliefs, or values.

Speech to Entertain:Amuse the audience by engaging them in a relatively light-hearted speech that may have a serious point or goal.

Ceremonial Speech: Perform a ritual function, such as give a toast at a wedding reception or a eulogy at a funeral.

Question 23

Why should you know how the audience feels about your topic?

Chapter 10

Answer 23

Knowing audience members’ attitudes about a topic will help a speaker determine the best way to reach their goals.
* Imagine that a presenter is trying to convince the community to build a park. A speaker would probably be inclined to spend the majority of the speech giving reasons why a park would benefit the community.

Question 24

What are the three main factors to consider when picking a topic?

Answer 24

Appeal:Involves the attractive power of arousing a sympathetic, stimulated response from the audience.

• We all tend to seek novelty and find interesting, attractive, or appealing, or something that is not part of everyday life. A good example is the melting ice cream used in the speech on global warming. The elements are nothing new. We’ve all seen plates,
  brownies, and ice cream before, but how many of us have seen a speaker use them together to symbolize the melting ice caps associated with global warming?

Appropriateness:Involves a topic that is especially suitable or compatible with your audience’s interest, expetations, norms, or customs.

• Some may be looking for information, while others may already know something about your topic and
  want to learn more. You will need to reach both groups within the audience. As we saw earlier in the Ford Mustang
  example, a highly technical speech may lose the more novice members of your audience.

Ability: Involves the natural aptitude or acquired proficiency to be able to perform.

• If you have a lot of prior information on flying, gained over years of experience being at the controls of an aircraft, you may have a natural aptitude and knowledge base to use to your advantage. If, however, you’ve never flown before, you may need to gather information and go visit an airport to be able to approach a proficient level of understanding to discuss the
  topic.
• In addition to your ability to draw on your natural strengths, you’ll also want to consider your ability to research a topic where you are located. If you want to develop a speech on a particular topic but you find information hard to come by, this will make your job even harder and could possibly have a detrimental impact on your speech. You may find that two similar topics interest you but your ability to gather information from more diverse sources, from places that are more readily available, or from your background and experience make one topic more attractive than the other.

Question 25

How do you construct a specific purpose?

Chapter 10

Answer 25

Once you have determined your general purpose—or had it determined for you, if this is an assigned—you will still need to write your specific purpose. What specifically are you going to inform, persuade, demonstrate, or entertain your audience with? What type of ceremony is your speech intended for? A clear goal makes it much easier to develop an effective speech. Try to write in just one sentence exactly what you are going
to do.

Question 26

What does a good thesis statement look like?

Chapter 10

Answer 26

This** Thesis statement** should be a short, specific sentence capturing the central idea of your speech. Steven Beebe and Susan
Beebe recommend five guiding principles when considering your thesis statement. The thesis statement should
1. be a declarative statement;
2. be a complete sentence;
3. use specific language, not vague generalities;
4. be a single idea;
5. reflect consideration of the audience.

Question 27

What are some good strategies to combat fears of public speaking?

Chapter 10

Answer 27

• Nevertheless, the butterflies in our stomach are a response we can choose to control by becoming more familiar with the expectations, preparation, and performance associated with speaking in public.
• You Don’t Have to Be Perfect
• Knowing yourself and where you need to improve
  is an important first step.
• Improvement is a process, not an end in itself; in fact, many people
  believe that learning to speak in public is more about the journey than the destination.
• Speaking in public gives
  you the distinct opportunity to prepare and organize your ideas or points in order to make an impact and respond
  effectively.
• Some people feel that the level of expectations, the need for perfection, or the idealistic qualities we perceive in eloquent speakers are required, and then focus on deficiencies, fears, and the possibility of failing to measure up. By letting go of this ideal, we can approach the challenge with a more pragmatic frame of mind.
• The rules we play comfortably by in conversation every day are the same as we shift to a larger conversation within the context of public speaking. This viewpoint can offer an alternative as you address your apprehensions, and help you let
  go of unrealistic expectations.

Question 28

What are primary and secondary research? What counts for each one?

Research and APA style

Answer 28

Primary Research:Primary data refers to the first hand data gathered by the researcher himself.

Secondary Research:econdary data means data collected by someone else earlier. Surveys, observations, experiments, questionnaire, personal interview, etc. Government publications, websites, books, journal articles, internal records etc

Question 29

What are the differences between popular and scholarly sources?

Research and APA Style

Answer 29

Scholarly Sources:A scholarly (or academic) resource is one that is written by experts in the field for experts in the field.

Popular Sources:Popular magazines and newspapers publish articles written for a general audience. Advertising is abundant. Articles rarely have bibliographies or references.

Question 30

How do you evaluate a source?

Research and APA Style

Answer 30

As you examine each source, it is important to evaluate each source to determine the quality of the information provided within it. Common evaluation criteria include: purpose and intended audience, authority and credibility, accuracy and reliability, currency and timeliness, and objectivity or bias.

Question 31

How do you cite in a speech?

Research and APA Style

Answer 31

The in-text citation would include the surname of the author or editor of the source document and the year of publication. For example, your sentence might look like this: Dr. King declared, “I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed” (Smith, 2009).

Question 32

How do you avoid plagiarism? How do you incorporate quotes and paraphrasing into your presentations (what to do v. what not to do)?

Research and APA Style

Answer 32

How-To avoid plagiarism.
* 1. Cite your source
* 2. Include quotations
* 3. Paraphrase
* 4. Present your own idea
* 5. Use a plagiarism checker

How to incorporate quotes:
When citing paraphrased information, APA requires you to include the author and date. It is also recommended (but not required) that you include the page number.

Question 33

What are the differences between an APA and MLA in-text citation?

Research and APA Style

Answer 33

MLA:Uses the author-page number style for in-text citations
APA: Uses the author-date citation style

Question 34

What are the differences between an APA Reference Page and an MLA Works Cited page?

Research and APA Style

Answer 34

• Papers written in MLA format will have a Works Cited page.
• The APA citation page, on the other hand, will be labeled References.
• • Both titles will be centered at the top of the page and the list of references will be double spaced.

MLA
* Author’s name in MLA will take the format: Last Name, First Name
* Henry, John

Two Authors:

Gillespie, Paula and Neal Lerner
* Note: Notice the second name is written in the first name last name format

Three or More Authors:

Gillespie, Paula, et al.
* Note:With three or more authors, you’ll include the first author and then et al., which is Latin for “and others.”

APA
When it comes to multiple authors in APA, you have three different categories. With two authors, you’ll list both with an ampersand (&) separating them. When there are less than twenty authors, you’ll list all the names with commas separating them and an ampersand before the last one. If the source has more than twenty authors, you’ll list the first nineteen authors, separated by commas, then include an ellipsis (. . .) followed by the last author. Look at a few examples to really understand.

• In APA format, you only write out the last name followed by the first and middle initial.
• Henry, J.

Two Authors:
Gillespie, P. H., & Lerner, N.

Twenty or Fewer Authors:
Gillespie, P. H., Corn, D. P., Son, C. R., Barry, A. B., Harlow, T., & Beck, J.

More Than Twenty Authors:
Gillespie, P. H., Corn, D. P., Son, C. R., Barry, A. B., Harlow, T., Beck, J., Jones, A., Robins, C., Jackson, S., Smith, J. P., Johnson, T., Turney, W., White, K. L., Hunter, B. A., Lewis, H., Beck, J., Winters, N. I., Young, L., Crow, J., . . . Ruben, H.

Question 35

What are the major differences between an APA reference page entry and other styles? Can you identify one?

Research and APA Style

Answer 35

Come back to this

Question 36

What are ethos, logos, and pathos?

Chapter 12

Answer 36

Ethos:Ethos appeals to the speaker’s status or authority, making the audience more likely to trust them.
* An appeal to ethics

• As a dentist, I see this problem a lot and always
  recommend toothpaste for sensitive teeth.
• He’s been a leading paleontologist for over 20 years,so he knows his way around some dinosaur fossils.

Logos:Logos appeals to the audience’s reason, building up logical arguments.
* An appeal to logic and reason
* Studies show that people who eat chocolate are
72% happier than people who don’t, so we should
eat chocolate for every meal.
* You should do your homework to learn the lesson
and boost your grades.

Pathos:Pathos appeals to the emotions, trying to make the audience feel angry or sympathetic, for example.
* An appeal to emotions
* We would be so much happier if we
adopted this sweet puppy.
* If you don’t come for Thanksgiving, your
grandmother would be heartbroken.

Question 37

What is the five-finger model of public speaking? Be able to identify examples of each finger.

Chapter 12

Answer 37

**Attention Statement: **The attention statement is the way you focus the audience’s attention on you and your speech

Introduction:Your introduction introduces you and your topic, and should establish a relationship with your audience
and state your topic clearly.

Body:In the body, or main content area of your speech, you will naturally turn to one of the organizational
patterns.

Conclusion:You conclusion should provide the audience with a sense of closure by summarizing the main points and relating the points to the overall topic.

Residual Message:The residual message is an idea or thought that stays with your audience well after the speech.

Question 38

What are the organizing principles for a speech? Be able to identify time through elimination from table 12.6. (Will not test on ceremonial through oral interpretation)

Chapter 12

Answer 38

1. Time (Chronological): Structuring your speech by time shows a series of events or steps in a process, which typically has a
   beginning, middle, and end. “Once upon a time
   stories” follow a chronological pattern.
2. Comparison: Structuring your speech by comparison focuses on the similarities and/or differences between points or concepts.
3. Contrast: Structure your speech by using contrasting points
   highlights the differences between items and concepts.
4. Cause and Effect: Structuring your speech by cause and effect establishes a relationship between two events or
   situations, making the connection clear.
5. Problem and Solution: Structuring your speech by problem and solution means you state the problem and detail how it was
   solved. This approach is effective for persuasive
   speeches.
6. Classification (Categorical):Structuring your speech by classification establishes categories.
   There were three main types of transportation: by water, by horse, and by foot.

7.Biographical:Structuring your speech by biography means
examining specific people as they relate to the central topic.
* 1804: Lewis and Clark travel 4,000 miles
in over two years across America
* 1862: President Lincoln signs the Pacific
Railroad Act
* 1876: The Transcontinental Express from
New York arrives in San Francisco with a
record-breaking time of 83 hours and 39
minutes
* 2009: President Obama can cross
America by plane in less than 5 hours

8.Space(Spatial):Structuring your speech by space involves the parts of something and how they fit to form the whole.
* A train uses a heat source to heat water, create stream, and turn a turbine, which moves a lever that causes a wheel to move on a track.

9. Ascending and Descending:Structuring your speech by ascending or descending order involves focusing on quantity and
   quality. One good story (quality) leads to the larger picture, or the reverse.

10.** Psychological:**It is also called “Monroe’s MotivatedSequence” (Ayres, J. and Miller, J., 1994). Structuring your speech on the psychological aspects of the audience involves focusing on their inherent needs and wants. See Maslow and Shutz. The speaker calls attention to a need, then focuses on the satisfaction of the need, visualization of the solution, and ends with a proposed or historical action. This is useful for a persuasive speech.

11.Elimination:Structuring your speech using the process of
elimination involves outlining all the possibilities.

Question 39

What are the different types of transitions?

Chapter 12

Answer 39

Internal Previews: An internal preview is a brief statement referring to a point you are going to make. It can forecast or foreshadow a main point coming in your speech.
* If we look ahead to, next we’ll examine, now we can
focus our attention on, first we’ll look at, then we’ll
examine

Signposts:A signpost alerts the audience that you are moving
from one topic to the next. Signposts or signal words draw attention to themselves and focus the audience’s attention.
* Stop and consider, we can now address, next I’d like to explain, turning from/to, another, this reminds me of, I would like to emphasize

Internal Summaries:An internal summary briefly covers information or alludes to information introduced previously. It can
remind an audience of a previous point and reinforce information covered in your speech.
* As I have said, as we have seen, as mentioned earlier, in any event, in other words, in short, on the whole, therefore, to summarize, as a result, as I’ve noted previously, in conclusion

Sequence Transition:A sequence transition outlines a hierarchical order or series of steps in your speech. It can illustrate
order or steps in a logical process.
* First…second…third, furthermore, next, last, still,
also, and then, besides, finally

Time:A time transition focuses on the chronological aspects of your speech order. Particularly useful in a speech utilizing a story, this transition can illustrate for the audience progression of time.
* Before, earlier, immediately, in the meantime, in the past, lately, later, meanwhile, now, presently, shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon as long as, as soon as, at last, at length, at that time, then, until, afterward

Addition:An addition or additive transition contributes to a
previous point. This transition can build on a previous point and extend the discussion.
* In addition to, furthermore, either, neither, besides, moreover, in fact, as a matter of fact, actually, not only, but also, as well as, not to mention.

Similarity:A transition by similarity draws a parallel between
two ideas, concepts, or examples. It can indicate a common area between points for the audience.
* In the same way, by the same token, equally, similarly, just as we have seen, in the same vein

Comparison:A transition by comparison draws a distinction
between two ideas, concepts, or examples. It can indicate a common or divergent area between points for the audience.
* Like, in relation to, bigger than, smaller than, the fastest, than any other, is greater than, both, either…or, likewise, even more important

Contrast:A transition by contrast draws a distinction of
difference, opposition, or irregularity between two ideas, concepts, or examples. This transition can indicate a key distinction between points for the audience.
* But, neither…nor, however, on the other hand, although, even though, in contrast, in spite of, despite, on the contrary, conversely, unlike, while, instead, nevertheless, nonetheless, regardless, still,
though, yet

Cause and Effect or Result:A transition by cause and effect or result illustrates a relationship between two ideas, concepts, or
examples and may focus on the outcome or result. It can illustrate a relationship between points for the audience.
* As a result, because, consequently, for this purpose, accordingly, so, then, therefore, thereupon, thus, to this end, for this reason, as a result, because, therefore, consequently, as a consequence, and the
outcome was

Examples:A transition by example illustrates a connection
between a point and an example or examples. You may find visual aids work well with this type of transition.
* In fact, as we can see, after all, even, for example, for instance, of course, specifically, such as, in the following example, to illustrate my point

Place:A place transition refers to a location, often in a
spatially organized speech, of one point of emphasis to another. Again, visual aids work well when discussing physical location with an audience.
* Opposite to, there, to the left, to the right, above, below, adjacent to, elsewhere, far, farther on, beyond, closer to, here, near, nearby, next to.

Clarification:A clarification transition restates or further develops
a main idea or point. It can also serve as a signal to a key point.
* To clarify, that is, I mean, in other words, to put it another way, that is to say, to rephrase it, in order to explain, this means

Concession:A concession transition indicates knowledge of
contrary information. It can address a perception the audience may hold and allow for clarification.
* We can see that while, although it is true that, granted that, while it may appear that, naturally, of course, I can see that, I admit that even though

Question 40

What’s the difference between an informative and persuasive speech?

Chapter 13

Answer 40

• An informative speech aims to inform the audience about a specific topic
• A persuasive speech aims to persuade the audience to perform a certain action or convince the audience to adopt the belief or opinion of the speaker.

Question 41

How can interpretation, point of view, and/or bias impact your presentation? How can you present a neutral speech?

Answer 41

Interpretation: involves adapting the information to communicate a message, perspective, or agenda. Your insights and attitudes will guide your selection of material, what you focus on, and what you delete (choosing what not to present to the audience). Your interpretation will involve personal bias.

Bias: is an unreasoned or not-wellthought-out judgment. Bias involves beliefs or ideas held on the basis of conviction rather than current evidence.

point of view: is your perception of an idea or concept from your
previous experience and understanding. It is unique to you and is influenced by your experiences and also factors like gender, race, ethnicity, physical characteristics, and social class. Everyone has a point of view, as hard as they may try to be open-minded.

• But bias, as we’ve discussed previously, involves actively selecting information that supports or agrees with your current belief and takes away from any competing belief. To make sure you are not presenting a biased speech, frame your discussion to inform from a neutralbstance and consider alternative points of view to present, compare and contrast, and diversify your speech. The goal of the speech to inform is to present an expository speech that reduces or tries to be free from overt interpretation.
• Objectivity involves expressions and perceptions of facts that are free from distortion by your prejudices, bias,
  feelings or interpretations.

1. Keep your language neutral and not very positive for some issues while very negative for others.
2. Keep your sources credible and not from biased organizations. The National Rifle Association (NRA)
   will have a biased view of the Second Amendment, for example, as will the American Civil Liberties
   Union (ACLU) on civil rights.
3. Keep your presentation balanced. If you use a source that supports one clear side of an issue, include
   an alternative source and view. Give each equal time and respectful consideration.
4. Keep your audience in mind. Not everyone will agree with every point or source of evidence, but
   diversity in your speech will have more to offer everyone.
5. Keep who you represent in mind: Your business and yourself.

Question 42

What are the different categories of informative speeches? (focus on the main four)

chapter 13

Answer 42

Explanation: An effective speech to inform will take a complex
topic or issue and explain it to the audience in ways that increase audience understanding. Consider how you felt and then
find ways to explain your topic—visually, using definitions and examples, providing a case study—that can lay a foundation on common ground with your audience and build on it. No one likes to feel left out. As the speaker, it’s your responsibility to ensure that this doesn’t happen.

Report:The informative report is a speech
where you organize your information around key events, discoveries, or technical data and provide context and illustration for your audience. They may naturally wonder, “Why are sales up (or down)?” or “What is the product leader in your lineup?” and you need to anticipate their perspective and present the key information that relates to your topic. If everyone in the room knows the product line, you may not need much information about your best seller, but instead place emphasis on marketing research that seems to indicate why it is the best seller.

A status report may be short or long, andmay be an update that requires little background, but always consider the audience and what common ground you are building your speech on.

Description:Your audience will be drawn to your effective use of color, descriptive language, and visual aids. An informative speech that focuses description will be visual in many ways. You may
choose to illustrate with images, video and audio clips, and maps

• Their imagination is your ally, and you should aim to stimulate it with attention-getting devices and clear visual aids. Use your imagination to place yourself in their perspective: how would you like to have someone describe the topic to you?

Demonstration:You want to teach the audience how to throw a fast pitch in softball or a curveball in baseball. You want todemonstrate how to make salsa or how to program the applications on a smartphone. Each of these topics will call on your kindergarten experience of “show and tell.” A demonstrative speech focuses on clearly showing a process and telling the audience important details about each step so that they can imitate, repeat, or do the action
themselves. If the topic is complicated, think of ways to simplify each step.

Question 43

What is framing?

Answer 43

Framing: involves placing an imaginary set of boundaries, much like a frame around a picture or a window, around a story, of what is included and omitted, influencing the story itself.

• One form of framing is gatekeeping. Gatekeeping, according to Pearson and Nelson, is “a process of determining what news, information, or entertainment will reach a mass audience”
• In the context of journalism and mass media, gates and gatekeepers may include media owners, editors, or even the individual reporter in the context of mass communication. In the context of public speaking, you as the speaker are the gatekeeper to the information.
• Another function of gatekeeping is agenda setting. Setting the agenda, just like the agenda of a meeting, means selecting what the audience will see and hear and in what order. Who decides what is the number one story on the
  evening news?
• Another aspect of framing your message is culture. According to Pearson and Nelson, culture within the context of communication is “a set of beliefs and understandings a society has about the world, its place in it, and the various activities used to celebrate and reinforce those beliefs”

Question 43

What is framing?

Answer 43

Framing: involves placing an imaginary set of boundaries, much like a frame around a picture or a window, around a story, of what is included and omitted, influencing the story itself.

• One form of framing is gatekeeping. Gatekeeping, according to Pearson and Nelson, is “a process of determining what news, information, or entertainment will reach a mass audience”
• In the context of journalism and mass media, gates and gatekeepers may include media owners, editors, or even the individual reporter in the context of mass communication. In the context of public speaking, you as the speaker are the gatekeeper to the information.
• Another function of gatekeeping is agenda setting. Setting the agenda, just like the agenda of a meeting, means selecting what the audience will see and hear and in what order. Who decides what is the number one story on the
  evening news?
• Another aspect of framing your message is culture. According to Pearson and Nelson, culture within the context of communication is “a set of beliefs and understandings a society has about the world, its place in it, and the various activities used to celebrate and reinforce those beliefs”

Question 44

Additional Tips

Answer 44

Limit the Number of Details
While it may be tempting to include many of the facts you’ve found in your research, choose only those that clearly inform your audience. Try to group the information and then choose the best example to reduce your list of details. You don’t want the audience focusing on a long list of facts and details only to miss your main points.

Focus on Clear Main Points
Your audience should be able to discern your main points clearly the first time. You’ll outline them in your introduction and they will listen for them as you proceed. Connect supporting information to your clear main points to reinforce them, and provide verbal cues of points covered and points to come. Use internal summaries, where you state, “Now that we’ve discussed X point, let’s examine its relationship to Y point. This will help your audience follow your logic and organization and differentiate between supporting material and main points. You may also want to foreshadow points by stating, “We’ll examine Z point in a moment but first let’s consider Y point.”

Pace Yourself Carefully
Talking too fast is a common expression of speech anxiety. One way to reduce your anxiety level is to practice and know your information well. As you practice, note where you are in terms of time at the completion of each point. After a few practice rounds, you should begin to see some consistency in your speed. Use these benchmarks of time to pace yourself. When you deliver your speech, knowing you have time, are well prepared, and are familiar with your speech patterns will help you to pace yourself more effectively.

Speak with Concern for Clarity
Not everyone speaks English as his or her first language, and even among English speakers, there is a wide discrepancy in speaking style and language use. When you choose your language, consider challenging terms and jargon, and define them accordingly. You may assume that everyone knows “NIH” stands for “National Institutes
of Health,” but make sure you explain the acronym the first time you use it, just as you would if you were writing a formal article. Also pay attention to enunciation and articulation. As your rate of speech picks up, you may tend to slur words together and drop or de-emphasize consonants, especially at the ends of words. Doing this will make
you harder to understand, discouraging listening.

Use Restatement and Repetition
There is nothing wrong with restating main points or repeating key phrases. The landmark speech titled “I have a dream,” which Martin Luther King Jr. delivered on August 28, 1963, on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, used that phrase multiple times to reinforce the main message effectively.

Provide Visual Reinforcement
We’ve discussed the importance of visual aids to support and illustrate your content. As a speaker giving a prepared presentation, you have the luxury of preparing your visual aids with your audience in mind. In an impromptu speech, or a media interview, you may lack this luxury and find the effort challenging to appropriately reinforce your content. Take advantage of the known time frame before your speech to prepare effective visual aids and your speech will be more effective.

Include Time for Questions
You can’t possibly cover all the information about a topic that every audience member would want to know in the normal five to seven minutes of a speech. You may do an excellent job of supporting and reinforcing your points, but many listeners may have questions. Take this as a compliment—after all, if you hadn’t piqued their interest, they wouldn’t have any questions to ask. Answering questions is an opportunity to elaborate on a point, reinforcing what you presented and relying on your thorough preparation to illustrate the point with more depth. In some situations, the speaker will accept and answer questions during the body of the presentations, but it is more typical to ask listeners to hold their questions until the end. Depending on your instructor’s guidelines, you may advise the class at the beginning of your presentation which of these formats you will follow.

Look for Ways to Involve Listeners Actively
Instead of letting your audience sit passively, motivate them to get involved in your presentation. You might ask for a show of hands as you raise a question like, “How many of you have wondered about…?” You might point out the window, encouraging your audience to notice a weather pattern or an example of air pollution. Even stepping
away from the podium for a moment can provide variety and increase active listening.

Assess Learning, If Possible
Questions during a speech can help assess understanding, but also run the risk of derailing your speech as the audience pursues one point while you have two more to present. Make time for dialogue after the conclusion of your speech and encourage your audience to write down their questions and ask them at that time. Perhaps asking your audience to reflect on a point, and then to write a few sentences at the conclusion of your speech, might reinforce your central message.

To present a successful informative speech, motivate your audience by making your material relevant and useful, finding interesting ways to frame your topic, and emphasizing new aspects if the topic is a familiar one.

Question 45

What should a good introduction do and include? How do you structure an introduction?

Answer 45

Attention Statement
Show a picture of a goldfish and a tomato and ask the audience, “What do these have in common?”

Introduction
1. Briefly introduce genetically modified foods.
2. State your topic and specific purpose: “My speech today will inform you on genetically modified
foods that are increasingly part of our food supply.”
3. Introduce your credibility and the topic: “My research on this topic has shown me that our food supply
has changed but many people are unaware of the changes.”
4. State your main points: “Today I will define genes, DNA, genome engineering and genetic
manipulation, discuss how the technology applies to foods, and provide common examples.”

• In preparing an informative speech, use your knowledge and consider the audience’s knowledge, avoid unnecessary
  jargon, give credit to your sources, and present the information ethically

Question 46

What is serial position effect (i.e., primacy and recency)?

Chapter 13

Answer 46

The Primacy Effect: Items that are presented at the beginning of a list are recalled with greater accuracy than items in the middle of a list. The Recency Effect: Items that appear at the end of a list are also more likely to elicit better recall than items presented in the middle of a list.

Question 47

What are the steps of a conclusion?

Chapter 13

Answer 47

Conclusion
Reiterate your main points and provide synthesis, but do not introduce new content.

Question 48

What is the speaker’s triangle?

11.3-11.5

Answer 48

In a classical speech presentation, positions on the stage serve to guide both the speaker and the audience through transitions. The speaker’s triangle ndicates where the speaker starts in the introduction, moves to the second position for the first point, across for the second point, then returns to the original position to make the third point and conclusion. This movement technique can be quite effective to help you remember each of your main points. It allows you to break down your speech into manageable parts, and putting tape on the floor to indicate position is a common presentation trick. Your movement will demonstrate purpose and reinforce your credibility.

Question 49

What are appropriate facial gestures and eye contact?

11.3-11.5

Answer 49

Facial gestures: involve using your face to display feelings and attitudes nonverbally. They may reinforce, or contradict, the spoken word, and their impact cannot be underestimated
* Facial gestures should reflect the tone and emotion of your verbal communication.
* Consider how you want your audience to feel in response to your message, and identify the facial gestures you can use to
promote those feelings. Then practice in front of a mirror so that the gestures come naturally.

Eye contact:refers to the speaker’s gaze that engages the audience members. It can vary in degree and length, and in many cases, is culturally influenced.

• Both in the speaker’s expectations and the audience member’s
  notion of what is appropriate will influence normative expectations for eye contact. In some cultures, there are understood behavioral expectations for male gaze directed toward females, and vice versa. In a similar way, children may have expectations of when to look their elders in the eye, and when to gaze down. Depending on the culture, both may be nonverbal signals of listening. Understanding your audience is critical when it comes to
  nonverbal expectations.
• When giving a presentation, avoid looking over people’s heads, staring at a point on the wall, or letting your eyes dart all over the place. The audience will find these mannerisms unnerving. They will not feel as connected, or receptive, to your message and you will reduce your effectiveness. Move your eyes gradually and naturally
  across the audience, both close to you and toward the back of the room. Try to look for faces that look interested and engaged in your message. Do not to focus on only one or two audience members, as audiences may respond negatively to perceived favoritism. Instead, try to give as much eye contact as possible across the audience. Keep it natural, but give it deliberate thought

Question 50

How do you use lecterns/podiums?

11.3-11.5

Answer 50

Who would you rather listen to: a speaker who moves confidently across the stage or one who hides behind the podium; one who expresses herself nonverbally with purpose and meaning
or one who crosses his arms or clings to the lectern?

Question 51

How do you use vocalics effectively?

11.3-11.5

Answer 51

For all speakers, good vocalic technique is best achieved by facing the audience with your chin up and your eyes away from your notecards and by setting your voice at a moderate speed. Effective use of vocalics also means that you make use of appropriate pitch, pauses, vocal variety, and correct pronunciation.

Question 52

What is the appropriate font size for a visual aid?

11.3-11.5

Answer 52

32point

Question 53

What’s the 6 x 6 rule?

11.3-11.5

Answer 53

There are countless tips and tricks for giving great presentations but one that you might be familiar with is the 6×6 Rule. This presentation rules suggests that you should include no more than six words per line and no more than six bullet points per slide.

Question 54

What are the criteria for preparing visual aids?

11.3-11.5

Answer 54

Your visual aids should meet the following criteria:

• Big. They should be legible for everyone, and should be “back row certified.”
• Clear. Your audience should “get it” the first time they see it.
• Simple. They should serve to simplify the concepts they illustrate.
• Consistent. They should reinforce continuity by using the same visual style.

.

Question 55

What are the dos and don’ts of visual aids?

11.3-11.5

Answer 55

1. Do make a clear connection between your words and the visual aid for the audience.
2. Do not distract the audience with your visual aid, blocking their view of you or adjusting the visual aid
   repeatedly while trying to speak.
3. Do speak to your audience—not to the whiteboard, the video, or other visual aids.

——-EXTRA HELP——
*Keep visual aids simple.
358 Business Communication for Success
* Use one key idea per slide.
* Avoid clutter, noise, and overwhelming slides.
* Use large, bold fonts that the audience can read from at least twenty feet from the screen.
* Use contrasting colors to create a dynamic effect.
* Use analogous colors to unify your presentation.
* Use clip art with permission and sparingly.
* Edit and proofread each slide with care and caution.
* Use copies of your visuals available as handouts after your presentation.
* Check the presentation room beforehand.
* With a PowerPoint presentation, or any presentation involving technology, have a backup plan, such as
your visuals printed on transparencies, should unexpected equipment or interface compatibility
problems aris

Speaking to a visual aid (or reading it to the audience) is not an effective strategy. Know your material well enough that you refer to
your visual aids, not rely on them.