Beef Flashcards
1
Q
Beef agricultural output shares
A
2.2/2.5 million
2
Q
What % of agricultural output shares comes from milk and beef together?
A
65%
3
Q
What % of farmers in Irish beef enterprise?
A
60% (100,000)
4
Q
What % of beef farmers are part-time?
A
50%
5
Q
What is the most dominant system in farming in Ireland?
A
Beef enterprise
6
Q
What % of beef farms are located in the BMW region?
A
60%
7
Q
Avg beef herd size?
A
18 cows
8
Q
Avg beef farm size?
A
27.5 hectares
9
Q
Avg farm size in Ireland?
A
32.7ha (83 acres)
10
Q
How many breeding cows in Ireland?
A
~2.5 million
900,000 suckler cows, 1.5 million dairy cows
11
Q
From 2008 to 2020, by what % has the suckler cow population in Ireland dropped by?
A
12-15%
12
Q
What country has Europe’s longest season of grass growth?
A
Ireland
13
Q
What % of the diet relies on grass?
A
60-85%
14
Q
How many times cheaper is grass compared to silage?
A
Grass is 2 times cheaper than the cost of silage
15
Q
Cost of grass per tonne of DM?
A
€100/tonne DM
16
Q
What % of suckler calvings in Ireland occur between January and May?
A
70%
17
Q
What % of Ireland’s agricultural land area is devoted to grass?
A
80%
18
Q
The Irish beef supply chain can be analysed through what 5 key stages?
A
Farm inputs
Production/farming
Processing & packaging
Branding, marketing and distribution
Sales and retail
19
Q
How much do specialist cattle farms spend including both direct and overhead costs each year?
A
€1.6 billion on farm inputs
20
Q
Beef farm viability in Ireland?
A
20% viable
40% sustainable
40% vulnerable
21
Q
What % did direct payments of average farm incomes for cattle rearing and cattle other account for?
A
Cattle rearing – 158%
Cattle other – 111%
22
Q
Pillar 1
A
Direct Payment €1.2 billion – beef and tillage support payments
23
Q
Pillar 2
A
Rural Environmental Schemes (eg. GLAS, ACRES)
24
Q
On what conditions must an abbatoir require an EU export licence?
A
Any abbatoir slaughtering in excess of 1000 cattle per annum
25
AIBP, Dawn Meats and Kepak control what % of the kill in Ireland?
60%
26
Liffey Meats, Slaney, Dunbia, and Donegal Meats control what % of the kill in Ireland?
25%
27
MII
Meat Industry Ireland – processed ~85% of the total beef production
28
Weekly cattle availability ranges from…
25,000 to 38,000
29
How many cattle is slaughtered per year?
1.6-1.7 million
30
What country is the largest net exporter in the Northern Hemisphere?
Ireland
31
Beef production in Ireland (tonnes) per annum?
560,000-580,000
32
Beef production in USA p.a.?
12 million tonnes
33
Beef production in Brazil p.a.?
10 million tonnes
34
Global beef production p.a.?
Just under 70 million tonnes
35
What % of Irish beef is available for trading/sold to the global market?
12%
36
What % of Irish beef is consumed domestically?
10%
37
What amount of Irish beef is traded annually?
9 million tonnes
38
Where is Ireland in terms of beef exports in the world?
5th largest beef exporter in the world
39
Beef exports valued at…?
560-580,000 tonnes valued at €2.5 billion
40
Live exports and value?
200,000 head live worth €200-250 million
41
Value of industry combined of beef and live animals?
€3 billion
42
Beef price has increased by what % in the last 10 years?
70%, 33% increase in 5 years
43
Rise in beef per head in past 5 years?
€350/head
44
Self-sufficiency of Ireland in relation to beef?
~700%, therefore there’s a need for export
45
Calf exports 2023?
208,000 (+21% in 2023)
46
What % of Irish calf exports do the Netherlands take?
51%
47
White veal market locations?
Belgium and Netherlands
Slaughter under 6 months of age
48
Rosé veal market locations?
Spain
Slaughter 6-12 months
49
What % of national steers production are O and P grade?
60%
50
2023 Average beef price Ireland & EU
€4.96/kg (+4%)
51
Who buys Irish beef exports?
UK 47%, EU 45% - total 92-95% between EU and UK
52
When did US market open to Irish beef exports again?
2015 after the 15 year bam caused by the BSE crisis
53
Continued fall in EU beef output?
2023: -3.6%
2024: -1.3%
54
Carbon sequestration
With the help of grazing animals, carbon is taken from the air by plants and pumped into the soil, providing energy for soil microbes to build humus and store carbon
55
GAEC
Good Agricultural and Environmental Condition
56
Ireland's GHG per kg of beef
17-18kg CO2 per kg beef
57
Average Nitrogen balance for suckler farms
38.1kg/ha
58
What % of consumers in Ireland are vegetarians?
6%
59
Beef farming only accounts for what % of global GHG’s?
6%
60
2017 EU suckler cow herd size
12.4 million heads
61
Beef imports have increased by what %?
11.3%
62
Mercorsur EU Beef Deal: To import to EU you need:
Full traceability from weaning to slaughter
Animals have to be slaughtered less than 36 months of age
Fed on grass-based diet only
Min. carcass weight 260kg steers, heifers 210kg
63
Asia accounts for what % of the global beef trade?
35%
64
Total Global Exports increasing by what %
2.7%
65
The objective of growth and carcass development is:
High lean tissue
Minimum bone
Market-suitable fat
66
Growth rate and point of decline are influenced by...?
Breed and sex
67
Growth rate in cattle is linear until they reach…?
Mature size
68
FCR = ?
DM Intake/ADG = FCR
69
Fat is deposited in carcass in what order?
Kidney channel fat
Intermuscular fat
Subcut fat
Intramuscular fat
70
Kill Out % Calculation
(Cold carcass weight/Unfasted final weight) x 100
71
Key anabolic growth hormone that impacts muscle growth
IGF-1
72
Role of insulin in the body
Glucose metabolism, fat deposition
73
Rise in stress and cortisol leads to..
A weakened immune system
74
Hypertrophy definition
Increase in tissue size
75
Hyperplasia definition
Increase in cell numbers (muscle, fat, skeletal cell numbers)
76
Androgen
Male sex hormone
77
Oestrogen
Female sex hormone
78
Anabolic
Constructive metabolism, eg. adding muscle and bone
79
Endogenous
Produced by the body
80
Exogenous
Derived from outside the body
81
Xenobiotic
Synthetic hormone
82
When was the European Union Beef Classification Scheme introduced and what are its functions?
1982
- Provides a common beef classification system for farmers, meat plants, and retailers across the EU
- Acts as the basis for payment for different carcass types
83
Cold carcass weight calculation
Hot carcass weight x 0.98
84
What is the average carcass weight?
338.3kg (280-400kg)
85
How many extra kg carcass weight will improve conformation by one score (eg. O to an R)
70kg
86
Carcass value definition
The sum of wholesale values of individual meat cuts & lean trim with a small deduction for bone
87
When was the mechanical grading system introduced for carcass classification?
2004
88
Dairy farm mortality rate
3-5% but can reach up to 8%
89
Growth rate expected of a beef calf suckling a dam
1.2-1.3kg LWG/day
90
Ideal calving interval
Calf per cow per year
91
What % of breeding is by stock bull vs AI?
Stock bull 82%
AI 18%
92
Hybrid Vigour
Ability of crossbred animals to surpass average performance of their purebred parents
93
Typical slaughtering age of bulls
15 months
94
Typical slaughtering age of heifers
20 months
95
What % cows culled annually as barren
<5%
96
Compact calving
80% of cows calved in 6 weeks
97
Replacement rates
16-18%
98
National Mean Calving Interval
400 days
99
Mean calving date of Irish suckler herd
2nd week in March
100
Gestation length
283 days
101
How much of a window to breed and conceive to maintain reproductive efficiency?
50 days (2-3 cycles)
102
Allow how long for involution?
First 30 days
103
Two main factors that affect the post partum anoestrus interval are...?
Maternal offspring bonding
Nutrition (BCS and plane of nutrition)
104
Target conception rate of beef cows
60%
105
Post partum interval in dairy vs beef cows
Dairy = 30 days avg (20-50 days)
Beef = 60 days avg (20-120 days)
106
Positive feedback from what hormone?
FSH growth
107
Negative feedback from what hormone?
Oestradiol
108
What hormone drives ovulation?
LH
109
How many LH pulse waves in a cycle?
3
110
Atresia meaning
Follicle dies off
111
A spike in what hormone can lead to a successful heat?
Oestradiol
112
What substance can lead to a bigger, more mature dominant follicle?
Higher IGF-1 or insulin
113
One large follicle develops in all cows by how many days postpartum
6-8 days
114
Which cycles tend to be silent heats?
First cycle post partum and short cycles
115
How many LH pulses are needed to ovulate the dominant follicle
1 LH pulses per hour
116
Maintenance of a cow
60-65%
117
What % of cows ovulate by Day 36
85-90% (Silent ovulation)
118
What % of cows fail to ovulate in response to calf separation?
10-15%
119
Deep nutritional anoestrus
Thin cows -> delayed post-partum and oestrus interval
120
What % of cows exhibited fertile heat by Day 45?
80%
121
After standing heat, ovulation happens after how many hours
28-31 hours
122
At what stage of heat are cows inseminated?
Before ovulation happens as semen has to go through capacitation first before getting to the egg
123
How much of a reduction is oestrus on slats compared to pasture?
50% reduction
124
% of infertile and sub-fertile bull
3-5% infertile
10-25% sub-fertile
125
What hormone administered in non-cycling cows increases expression of heat activity and also increases the conception rate by about 7%?
eCG
126
Conception rate for cows <35 days post-partum
40%
127
Delaying age at first calving from 24 to 36 months caused what regarding net margin?
Decreased net margin per ha by 20-30% (was 50%)
128
Recommended weight % for beef heifers at: 13.5-14 months, first breeding(15mths), at calving (24mths)
60 to 65% of mature weight at 13.5-14 months
65 to 70% at time of first breeding (15 months)
85-90% of mature weight at calving (24 months)
129
Target BCS at calving
BCS 3
130
What % of grass growth has take place between May and early July?
60%
131
Pre-grazing cover target
1400-1500kg DM/ha (8cm)
132
DMD of hay
40-50%
133
Grazing residual target
No more than 100kg DM/ha
134
Every extra day at grass, you're saving...?
€1.54/day
135
How much silage should be available and adequate for the cow and calf in winter?
10tonne of silage
136
Weaning weight at end of 1st grazing season
320kg (290kg heifers)
137
Target weight at 1st turnout in spring
404kg (373kg heifers)
138
Target weight at 2nd winter housing
580kg (508kg heifers)
139
Finishing target weight
700kg (565kg heifers)
140
Benefit of creep grazing for the calf
Reduces the stress on the calf by gradually breaking the bond with the cow
141
Sham weaning
Calves with cows but prevented from suckling i.e. nutritional stress
142
Grass Tetany
Hypomagnesaemia
Low blood Mg concentration
Drop from ~25mg/L to <5mg/L
143
Mg daily requirements of a lactating cow
~20g Mg per day
144
Value of Irish food and drink exports?
€12.6 billion – 30% is meat & livestock (€3.9 billion)
145
Beef exports
€2.3 billion
5th largest in the world
580,000t
146
GAO beef
28%
147
Live imports
11,490 cattle
148
Irish consumption per person?
18.6kg per person
149
Main Irish export market?
UK 270,000 tonnes (47%)
150
Average FFI from beef enterprise for part time and full time?
Part time €7,000
Full time €21,000
151
Average single farm payment?
€350/ha
152
Average direct payment?
€11-12,000 per year
153
Number of major slaughter houses?
32
154
Weekly kill cattle number?
30,000
155
International carbon leakage?
If less carbon efficient countries increase beef production to satisfy growing demands
156
Origin Green Aim?
Reduce energy inputs, minimise overall carbon output, reduced impact on environment, increase efficiency and competitiveness
157
Antimicrobial use on Irish farms?
~7mg/PCU
158
Expected global demand for meat in next 5 years?
Grow by 1.6% per year
159
Key drivers of global beef consumption?
Population growth, consumer health and disposable
160
Average beef consumption?
9kg/capita
161
Compensatory growth
Rapid growth following a period of restricted feeding
Occurs in 2nd winter
162
What is the level of restricted feeding to achieve compensatory growth?
500-700g/day
163
Nutrition priority
Vital organs, bones, muscles, fat deposition
164
Order of growth
Bones, muscle, fat
165
When does fat deposition occur?
Once mature weight is reached
166
Muscle deposition order?
Limbs, tongue, intercostal, upper limbs, spinal, abdominal
167
What tissue is heaviest at birth?
Muscle
168
Early maturing – early fattening phase?
Hereford/Angus
169
What hormone inhibits growth hormone function?
IGF-1
170
Benefits of HGP?
200-300g/day increased growth by 10-30%
171
Location of ultrasound scan?
Between 12th and 13th rib
172
What majorly affects carcass price?
Conformation score
173
Ideal conformation grade?
R4L
174
2 main aspects of beef quality?
Functional quality (tenderness etc.)
Conformational quality (consumer specification)
175
Cost price difference between grades?
6c/kg
176
Space for an 85kg calf
1.8-2m^2 floor space (10m3 air space)
177
Suckler cow space
Slatted shed – 3m^2 per head
Straw shed – 4m^2 per head
178
What size of striploin cuts have highest value?
4.5-7.5kg
179
% of suckler progeny from late maturing breeds?
85%
180
Target weaning weight?
300kg at 7 months
181
Crossbred advantage % gain from hybrid vigour?
13%
182
Total volume of milk produced during suckling?
7-8L (linear response in ADG past 7L)
183
% weaning weight from milk
60%
184
What drives output of profitability?
Terminal sire
185
% of continental crossbred suckler cows?
>75%
186
What € star indexes are more desired?
Carcass weight, fertility, milk, docility
187
Standing heat average?
9hrs
188
Peak times of oestrus?
6-9am and 6-9pm
189
Interval from heat detection to AI?
12-18 hours
190
Standing heat to ovulation?
28-30 hours
191
Cost of calving interval?
€2.20 per cow per day
192
P4 blood concentration at puberty?
>1ng/ml
193
How many pubertal heats should heifers have?
3 for higher conception rates
194
Regression % of large follicle post partum?
93%
195
Critical factors at weaning?
Age and cow condition
196
How long does full immunity take after vaccinating?
6 weeks
197
Determining factor to wean?
Concentrates intake – 1kg/calf/day for 3 days
198
What helps to avoid stemmy swards in spring?
Tight grazing in Spring/Summer
199
When most meal feeding occurs for weaning?
4 weeks preweaning and 2 weeks post-weaning
200
Expected response to first kg of meal fed to weanlings?
4:1 (0.25kg LWG per kg concentrates)
201
Benefit of fence line access for weaning?
Less stress, less weight loss, higher post-weaning LWG
202
Cytokine definition?
Adaptive immunity against viral and bacterial infections
203
Effect of high protein feeds on Mg?
Reduce Mg absorption in the rumen
204
Benefit of replacements from within the herd?
Reduced disease risk, reduced cost, milk production potential
205
Rate of N application?
220kg N/ha
206
Ideal number of handlings in an oestrous synch programme?
3 (PRID in/out/AI)
207
Heifers age at puberty?
13-14 months (60-65% of mature body weight)
208
The effect of a follicular cyst?
High levels of E2 (affects LH secretion)
209
Why is synchronisation used on beef cows?
Resume cyclicity
210
Interval between PRID removal and AI?
72hrs
211
Cost of FTAI?
€25-30 per cow
212
Maximise output per cow to dilute costs?
Optimal herd fertility
Calf growth rates
High calf quality
213
What is the fat content of beef?
3-5%
214
What is the value of the beef industry annually in Ireland?
€2.5 billion
215
Which of the following helps papillae development in Rumen?
Butyrate
216
What is the body condition score for a spring calving suckler cow at mid-pregnancy, mating and calving?
Mid Pregnancy – 3.0
Mating - ˃2
Calving – 2.5
217
Desired Calving Interval = 365. Ireland’s Calving Interval =
403 days (367 at Grange)
218
Desired age at Calving = 24 months. Ireland=
32-32.5months
219
Dairy Calf to Beef Ration. % Fibre, % Crude Oil
10% fibre
<4% crude oil
220
% Cost of feeding cow in calf to beef and calf to weaning
Beef 50%
Weaning 85%
221
Which of the following protozoa is a major cause of diarrhoea in calves?
Cryptosporidium
222
% Asia – Beef World Trade
35%
223
Friesian Calf Average Daily Gain and weight at 12 weeks
0.7 kg/day and 100 kg
224
What has the biggest effect on tenderness of beef?
Post Slaughter Management
225
What chemical in grass causes yellowness in beef fat?
Keratin
226
What is the major influence in molecular/follicular growth?
LH pulse Frequency
227
When does feeding/nutrition have the largest effect on PPI (Post-Partum Interval)?
Pre-Partum Feeding (Before Calving)
228
How has Brazil Increased their production?
Due to increased use of genetics through crossbreeding programmes
229
What is the economic value of milk as a % in the Eurostar System?
35%
230
Total Output per hectare calculation
Total Output/ha = Stocking Rate x Output/LU
231
Brazil in the beef industry :
World’s Largest Exporter, 2nd Largest Producer, 3rd Biggest Consumer
232
Difficult to export from Brazil to EU due to:
Farm Safety, Traceability
233
What gives Brazil such a unique competitive position?
Vast land areas, plenty of water
234
1 Livestock Unit in Brazil (AU) =
1 450kg Animal
235
Average Stocking Rate in Brazil, Potential Stocking Rate
1 AU/ Ha, 22 AU/Ha
236
Target growth rate over winter
0.5-0.7 kg/day
237
2nd season at grass male steer ADG target
1kg/day, highest early in season
238
2nd season at grass growth rate for bulls
1.3-1.4 kg/day
239
Bulls housed for finish at
580 kg
240
Bulls growth rate during finishing
1.5-1.6 kg/day
241
Output =
Output = Stocking Rate x Performance Targets x Quality
242
Main market for live export weanlings?
Turkey (322,000 heads), Israel (176,000 heads) and Lebanon (155,000 heads),
243
Total beef consumption in Ireland?
87,000 tonnes
244
% of Irish exports in fresh beef i.e. not frozen
90%
245
EU suckler herd 2017
12.4 million
246
3 largest suckler herds in EU
France, Spain, UK
247
10% increase in income equates to:
5% increase in beef consumption
248
Cost to maintain a suckler cow and a calf, to the weanling stage
€635
249
Cost to maintain the suckler cow
€552
250
What percentage of Irish farms include beef enterprises?
30%
251
How many farms specialize in beef production in Ireland?
78,000
252
What percentage of Ireland’s agricultural land is grassland?
80%
253
What factor is key to Ireland’s competitive advantage in beef production?
Long grass-growing season
254
What is the economic viability threshold for Family Farm Income in Ireland?
€19,600
255
What market is the largest for Irish beef exports outside of the EU?
China
256
What year did the US reopen its market to Irish beef after a 15-year ban?
2015
257
Which country opened its market to Irish beef in both 2018 and 2024?
China
258
What is a major environmental advantage of Irish beef production?
Low carbon footprint
259
Which EU policy has impacted direct payments for Irish farmers?
Common Agricultural Policy
260
Which region is the largest export destination for global beef?
Asia
261
Which of these is a primary driver of increased beef demand in Asia?
Urbanisation
262
Which international agreement impacts Irish climate policy in agriculture?
Paris Agreement
263
What percentage of Irish beef exports goes to international markets?
5-8%
264
Which country consumes the most beef per capita globally?
Brazil
265
How much has beef production in China increased due to imports?
10%
266
How does a 10% cut in direct payments affect farm income on Irish cattle farms?
Declines by 14%
267
Which country has the highest import growth potential for beef, driven by rising disposable income?
China
268
How much of Irish beef production is exported?
90%
269
What advantage does the Gulf Stream provide to Irish agriculture?
Frequent rainfall and mild temperatures
270
What is a key target for Ireland's beef industry under the "Food Harvest 2020" plan?
Grow the sector by 40% or €500 million
271
In terms of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, how does Irish agriculture rank in Europe?
Among the most carbon-efficient in the EU
272
What is a projected trend in the EU beef sector through 2024?
Decreasing beef output by 1.3%
273
What factor significantly influences growth rates in cattle?
Level of feeding
274
Energy intake in cattle is directed first towards what?
Bone growth
275
Intramuscular fat is important because it...
Enhances meat quality
276
Which sex in cattle typically has the highest lean tissue percentage?
Bulls
277
Kill-out percentage (KO%) in cattle refers to..
Carcass weight after removing hide, head, feet, etc
278
Dressing percentage for cattle typically ranges between:
50-60%
279
Hormonal growth promotants (HGP) are primarily:
Oestrogenic and androgenic
280
A hormone growth implant is placed where in the animal?
Under the skin in the ear
281
In live animal scoring, muscularity is assessed by evaluating...
Width at withers, loin, and thigh development
282
Which scoring process uses a linear scale from 1 to 15?
Musularity
283
Which fat classes are typically most desirable in beef carcasses?
3 and 4L
284
The main muscle used for sensory analysis in beef is the...
Longissimus thoracis
285
Sensory analysis often evaluates which of the following traits?
Tenderness, juiciness, flavor
286
Juiciness in beef is closely related to...
Intramuscular fat (marbling)
287
The introduction of mechanical grading for carcasses in the EU aimed to:
Improve consistency and reduce subjectivity
288
What is one advantage of using ultrasound technology in cattle grading?
Provides non-invasive muscle and fat measurements
289
What is a primary goal of suckler beef production?
Producing high-quality animals for EU markets
290
What is an essential aspect of suckler beef production?
Grassland management
291
What is an advantage of using a continental crossbred cow?
Higher growth rate post-weaning
292
What does hybrid vigor in crossbred animals typically improve?
Reproductive and productive performance
293
Which type of feeding is emphasized in Irish suckler herds during winter?
Ad libitum silage
294
Characteristics that are improved through heterosis in suckler cows
Birth weight, Growth rate, Longevity
295
What is a feature of two- or three-breed rotational crossing?
Stabilizes breed proportions over generations
296
The main benefit of composite breeding in suckler herds is:
Retention of hybrid vigor
297
In the Irish Beef Genomics Scheme, how much is paid per cow per year?
€90
298
What is the Replacement Index used for?
Selecting suitable breeding animals
299
What percentage of suckler cows were bred to late-maturing breeds by 2007?
87%
300
In the Irish Beef Genomics Scheme, what technology is central to calf registration?
DNA-based registration
301
Which is a critical factor in reducing the post-partum interval in beef cows?
Nutrition
302
A primary reproductive target for beef herds is to achieve what percentage of cows calving to wean a calf?
95%
303
What is the main hormone involved in inducing ovulation in beef cows?
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
304
Post-partum anoestrus in beef cows is often due to...
Failure of recurrent dominant follicles to ovulate
305
What is the primary benefit of early calf separation for post-partum cows?
Advances the return to oestrus
306
What is the role of body condition scoring (BCS) in managing reproductive efficiency?
Indicates energy reserves
307
The average interval between first and second ovulation in beef cows is:
20-30 days
308
What factor can increase conception rate in synchronized beef herds?
Timed artificial insemination
309
Which hormone is responsible for the pre-ovulatory LH surge in heifers?
GnRH
310
What percentage of heifers should be cyclic before the start of the breeding season?
80%
311
What is the average age at puberty in well-nourished beef heifers?
12 months
312
Which hormone is crucial for detecting puberty in beef heifers?
Oestrogen
313
What is a primary method to manage reproductive efficiency in beef cows?
Compact calving season
314
Which is a goal of oestrous synchronization protocols?
Minimize animal handling
315
The presence of which structure indicates a higher pregnancy rate when synchronizing oestrus?
Corpora lutea (CL)
316
What hormone is often used in synchronization protocols to trigger ovulation?
GnRH
317
Heifers on a high plane of nutrition reach puberty sooner due to increased levels of...
Insulin and leptin
318
Which factor significantly affects the timing of puberty in beef heifers?
Plane of nutrition
319
For optimal grass quality, grazing should be managed to keep residuals at:
4cm
320
A common practice to avoid poaching is to:
House animals when soil conditions are wet
321
Stocking rates for cows and calves in an intensive spring-calving system during April-June are approximately:
0.2 ha per cow and calf
322
A target digestibility for silage for spring-calving suckler cows is:
65-67%
323
Stressors at weaning
Change of diet
Separation from dam
Transportation
324
The first nitrogen fertilizer application in early spring is recommended at:
50 kg/ha
325
The protein requirement in grass silage for growing weanlings should be around:
18%
326
The best time to give a booster vaccine to calves before weaning is:
2-3 weeks before weaning
327
A common sign of grass tetany in cattle is:
Severe muscle contractions and bellowing
