Before midterm Flashcards
1
Q
What is developmental psychology?
A
It’s the study of change
2
Q
What is cognitive psychology?
A
For people with cognitive/thinking problems (e.g. anger control)
3
Q
What are the 2 major focuses in psychology?
A
1) Genetics:
Biologically inherited characteristics (Genes do not control behaviour directly- only via chemical control)
2) Environment (Includes prenatal environment)
4
Q
What are the domains used to describe a person?
A
Physical, Motor, Social, Intellectual, Emotional
5
Q
When is frontal control mechanism fully developed?
A
21-22 years
6
Q
Describe biological perspective (i.e Biological school of thought)
A
- Chemical imbalance: Neurotransmitters
- Role of genetics: Genetic vulnerability (inherited characteristics passed on from parents to children that make it more likely that a person will develop an addiction.)
Set point theory - obesity - Hard-wired Behaviour: Fight of Flight
Behavioural Neuroscience: How neurons function, brain damage to frontal lobe
7
Q
Describe learning (Behavioral) perspective (i.e learning school of thought)
A
3 Major types of learnign:
1) Classical conditioning (involuntary
responses): Pavlov- Stimulus response (e.g TV Ads)
2) Operant Conditioning (voluntary
responses): B. F. Skinner- Operating on Environment
response comes first, and the consequence tends to modify
this response in the future. In operant conditioning, the consequences
of behaviour are manipulated to increase or decrease
the frequency of a response or to shape an entirely new
response.
Learning from consequences of actions
3) Observational Learning: Media, social networks, Television.
8
Q
Describe cognitive perspective
A
- How our ways of thinking influence our understanding of the world e.g. Airplane model (pilot and first-time flyer)- same stimulus, different response
- Perception
- Memory
9
Q
Psychodynamic perspective
A
Sigmund Froid- problems root in childhood Iceberg model ID, Ego- The 'id' and the 'superego' are constantly in conflict with each other, and the 'ego' tries to resolve the discord. If this conflict is not resolved, we tend to use defense mechanisms to reduce our anxiety. Freudian slip (unconscious slips into conscious)
10
Q
Psychosexual stages
A
Based on chilhood needs:
Gratification (+) or Fixation (-)
Unmet needs affect life
11
Q
Freudian stages of development
A
1) Oral (0-12 months). Mouth feeding -> problems with drinking, eating, smoking, nail biting. Dependency, aggression, sarcasm
2) Anal (12 months- age of 3) Toilet training. Anal retentive: perfectionism, orderly, right. Ana expulsive: careless, messiness, hoadrness
3) Phallic (3-6 years) Erohenous zones: penis/clitor. Strong sexual attachment to parents of opposite sex. Oedipal conflict-penis envy
4) Latency (6- puberty) Repression of sexual impulse. Sexually unfulfilled. Prefer to play with the same sex
5) Genital: (Puberty- Adulthood) Maturity. Shift of focus od sexual energy to the opposite sex. Heterosexual love
12
Q
Humanistic perspective
A
- Basic reaction to freud. People have free & unlimited potential.
- Each person is unique
- Unconscious forces
- Need for self-actualization (Maslow)
- People are naturally good and want to make themselves and the world around better
13
Q
Socio-cultural perspective
A
- Behaviour is affected by our cultural/ Social influences
- Analyzes gender, lifestyle, income, age
14
Q
Evolutionary perspective
A
- Examines the role of inherited tendencies
- Central claim is that our brain has evolved solve problems encountered by our ancestors
- Explains behavior in terms of natural selection
- May be sex specific: woman stays at home, man hunts
15
Q
What is naturalistic observation. Example + cons
A
Studies people in their natural environment
Cons: the observation might be incorrect. CROSS VALIDATION is required
Nixon- Kennedy
16
Q
What is case study. Example + pros and cons
A
Study of one subject in depth
Pros: detailed description of one behaviour
Cons: Data cannot be generalized
17
Q
What is longitudinal study. Pros and cons
A
The same group of participants is followed and
measured at different ages, over a period of years.
Pros: a lot of data across a variety of characteristics and ages .
Cons: time-consuming and
expensive. People may drop out of the study
18
Q
What is cross-sectional study. Pros and cons
A
- Various characteristics are compared in groups of different ages, at one point in time
- Determine age-related differences
Pros: less expensive and less time consuming
method
Cons: differences found in age groups are based on group averages, so this approach cannot provide answers to some questions.
19
Q
What does a negative correlation coefficient mean?
A
A negative correlation coefficient means that, for any two variables X and Y, an increase in X is associated with a decrease in Y
20
Q
What is an independent variable?
A
It is the effect being studied
If you see a word “effect” -> independent variable
All experiments have it
21
Q
What is an dependent variable?
A
The measure, the score, the number
22
Q
The effect of __ on __
choose between DV and IV
A
The effect of IV on DV
23
Q
What are the 3 features of an experiment that should always be present?
A
- A control group
- Reliability (meaning that the experiment could be replicated, consistency of the data)
- Validity
24
Q
What is a median?
A
Values are put in order from lowest to highest. The one in the middle is the median
If there are 2 numbers in the middle, take the average-> median
25
What is a mode?
The number that pops up the most often
26
What is standard deviation?
A number calculated from the raw scores that tell us about the spread of the scores that make up the mean
27
How to calculate if the number fits the norm?
```
Add the standard deviation value to the mean value to get the first number for the range and subtract form the mean value to get the second number for the range
E.g Average weight is 115. SD=3
68% 112-118 pounds
95%- 109-124
99%- 106-127
```
28
What are the tasks of the neuron?
1) Receive
2) Integrate
3) Transmit
29
What are the types of neurons and their function?
- Afferent neurons (incoming neurons) - carry impulses from sense organs to brain e.g skin to brain
- Efferent neuron- from brain to glands & muscles
- Inter-neurons- most numerous. Carry info between neurons
- Mirror neurons- When our neurons fire empathetically when we observe someone e.g mental rehearsal in sports
30
What is the type of neurons that autistic people may have problems with?
Mirror neurons
31
What are the parts and functions of neuron?
- Cell body: contains nucleus, carries out metabolic function. Makes a decision whether to fire or not.
- Axon: long & short spindles that pass signals to other neurons. Axon terminal sends out neurotransmitters
- Myelin: Insulation and speed of transition
32
Neurotransmitters can either ____ or ____
Neurotransmitters can either fire of inhibit
33
What are glial cells?
Compose 55% of the brain.
Stick brain cells together.
Support services, nutrition, remove waste.
sHelp in production of myelin
34
How do neurons communicate?
- Neurons at rest have a slightly negative resting potential
- Incoming signal changes the ionic balance. Positive ions (Sodium) enter and depolarize the resting potential
- Negative ions (chlorine) are forced out
35
Describe how does a synapse occur?
- A signal reaches the end of an axon and causes neurotransmitters to be released from the bulbs at the end
- NT float across the synaptic cleft and bind to dendrites of the receiving neuron. Each NT has a specific shape and fits into a specific receptor
- The binding causes a new impulse which may fire or inhibit
- Unused NT are sucked back to the axon terminal - RE-UPTAKE
36
Name major NTs
- Acetylcholine (Ach)
- Serotonin
- Dopamine
- Glutamate
- Endorphins
37
Describe Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine (Ach)
- May produce either excitatory or inhibitory effects
- Control of the muscles
- Atention, learning, sleep and memory
Ach may enhance memory. Alzheimer's disease may be connected with a lack of Ach
38
Describe Serotonin
- Inhibitory mood transmitter: relaxation, sleep
- plays an important role in regulating mood, sleep, impulsivity, aggression, and appetite
Lack of serotonin:
- mood disorder (Prozac targets serotonin neurons)
- anxiety
- Impulsivity issues
- Aggression
39
Describe Dopamine
- Both excitatory and inhibitory
- Serves many functions
- Critical for motor and memory
- Reward pathway
- Learning, attention, movement, and reinforcement.
- Important to our ability to feel pleasure
- Too MUCH-> schizophrenic behaviour. Anti-psychotic drugs block dopamine
- Too LITTLE: Parkinson's disease
40
Describe Glutamate
- Primary excitory NT, released by 40% of our neurons
- Enhances action potential-> neurons are more likely to fire
- Involved in most aspect of brain functioning
- Active in higher frontal brain centers: learning, thought, memory
41
Endorphins
- Pain reducers, wide variety of drugs
- Triggered by drugs like opium, heroin and morphine
- Inhibitory NT resulting in floating calm
- Causes respiration to slow down -> danger
- Hunger regulation-> weight suppression
- Sexual pleasure
- The drop often results in post-partum depression
42
Agonists vs Antagonists
Agonist:
- Enhance & improve the action of NT
- Improves the availability of NT
- e.g caffeine increases availability of Glutamate-> active, awake
Antagonist:
- Block the action of NT by occupying the receptor site
- This is the principle of antipsychotic drugs, Dopamine receptors blocked by Prozac
43
What are the 2 types of Human nervous system?
Central Nervous system (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous system (PNS)
44
Describe CNS
- Components
- Evolutionary purpose
- Function
- Spinal cord + brain
- HAs distinct regions with specific function-> survival (no eggs in 1 basket)
- Responsible for integrating sensory information and responding accordingly.
Incoming: from our environment to our sense organs
Outgoing: from our brain to muscles
45
Describe PNS
- Components
- Function
All parts of nervous system apart form the brain & spinal cord (nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord)
- Somatic and autonomic
- Connects the central nervous system to the organs, limbs, and skin to allow for complex movements and behaviours.
46
Describe Somatic nervous system
- Soma means body
- Control of voluntary movements e.g. hands, eyes
- Sensory neurones: incoming messages by our body
- Motor neurones: outgoing from the brain
47
Describe Automatic nervous system
- Divides into 2: Parasympathetic and Sympathetic
| - Automatic control of internal body functions: breathing, heart, digestion
48
Parasympathetic vs Sympathetic
Sympathetic is responsible for the response commonly referred to as "fight or flight," (raises heart rate) while parasympathetic is referred to as "rest and digest."
49
The lower the area of the brain the....
The lower the area of the brain the, the more basic is the function e.g breathing is located the the bottom/back
50
What are the structures in the bottom of the brain
There are 4 of them making up "Brain stem":
1) Medulla
2) Pons
3) Cerebellum
4) Reticular activating area
51
Describe Medulla
- Controls autonomic functions such as breathing, digestion, heart and blood vessel function, swallowing, and sneezing, orgasm.
- Motor and sensory neurones from the midbrain and forebrain travel through the medulla.
52
Describe Pons
- Sits directly above the medulla.
- Function: Connects upper and lower parts of the brain.
- Serves as a message station between several areas of the brain. It helps relay messages from the cortex and the cerebellum.
- Sleep cycles
53
Describe Cerebellum
- Behind and above the ears
- Responsible for balance and posture
- Movement coordination, everyday movements
- Sensitive to drugs and alcohol
- Role in habit formation
54
Describe Reticular Activating Area
- Wakes up higher areas of the brain
- Attention and arousal
- Filters out low level/ unimportant messages to avoid overload
- Not matured until adolescence (-> children have low attention span_
55
Which parts of the brain are located above the brain stem?
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
- Limbic system (Amygdala + Hippocampus)
56
Describe Thalamus
- 2 egg shaped structures above the brain stem
- Relay center of motor and sensory signals to the cerebral cortex
- All senses pass through the thalamus apart from smell
57
Describe Hypothalamus
- The master regulator
- Below thalamus
Regulates:
- Release of hormones
- Body temperature
- Daily physiological cycles
- Appetite
- Managing of sexual behavior
- Emotional responses
58
Describe the limbic system
Structures
Location
When does it become fully developed
Two main structures: Amygdala and Hippocampus Collectively involved in emotional expression, memory, and motivation
Located in the front
Not developed fully until 25
59
Describe amygdala
Amygdala:
- Plays an important role in emotion, particularly in response to unpleasant stimuli
- Involved in various aspects of learning, such as learned - - Helps us form associations between external events
- Brain's alarm system -> why we act before we think
Damage to the amygdala can also impair one’s ability to recognize
(1) facial expressions showing fear or anger
(2) tones of voice expressing these emotions
(3) Docile behaviour
60
Describe hippocampus
- Located in the interior temporal lobes; sea horse shaped
- Essential in the formation of conscious memory. Short-term transformation to long-term
- Plays a role in the brain’s internal representation of space- neural “maps” - that help us learn our way around new environments and remember where we have been
If damaged : loss of ability to store or recall any
new personal or cognitive information. However, memories already stored before would remain intact.
61
Describe Cerebrum
Most human part of the brain
Consists of:
(a) Cerebral cortex - thin covering responsible for higher mental processes such as language, memory, and thinking.
(b) two cerebral hemispheres physically connected at the bottom by a thick band of nerve fibres called the CORPUS CALLOSUM
Processes sensory information, thinking, learning, consciousness of voluntary movement
62
Describe corpus callosum
The thick band of nerve fibres that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and makes possible the transfer of information and the synchronization of activity between them.
63
What are the 3 areas of cerebral cortex?
The cerebral cortex contains three types of areas:
(1) sensory input areas, where vision, hearing, touch, pressure, and temperature register;
(2) motor areas, which control voluntary movement
(3) association areas, which house our memories and are involved in thought, perception, and language.
64
What are the lobes of the brain?
- Frontal lobe: personality site
- Temporal lobe: hearing
- Parietal lobe
- Occipital lobe: vision center
65
Describe the frontal lobe
- Areas/components
- What is these area's become damaged
- Largest lobe
- Contains motor cortex: a strip of tissue at the back of the frontal area that controls voluntary motion. Fine motor (takes up bigger part of motor cortex) and gross motor
- Broca's area (left frontal lobe)- speech, sounds and cognitive skills
- Frontal association area: thinking, motivation, planning for the future, impulse control, and emotional responses. If damaged -> personality change. e.g Phineas Gage
66
Defien Broca's Aphasia
An impairment in the ability to physically produce speech sounds or, in extreme cases,
an inability to speak at all; caused by damage to Broca’s area.
67
Describe the Parietal lobe
- Located directly behind frontal lobe, top-middle of the brain
- Contains somatosensory cortex (front strip of brain tissue) - sensation, touch, skin
- The two halves of the somatosensory cortex are wired to opposite sides of the body.
- Reception and processing of touch. pressure, temperature, pain
If damaged: cannot tell a difference between textures
68
Describe the Occipital Lobe
Location
Function
Damage consequences
- Behind the parietal lobes at the rear of the brain
- Reception and interpretation of visual information
- Primary visual cortex (very back of the occipital lobes) is where vision registers in the cerebral cortex.
- The left visual field is registered in the right visual cortex, right visual field
is registered in the left visual cortex.
- A person with damage to one primary visual cortex will have partial vision in both eyes
- The association areas in occipital lobe hold memories of past visual experiences
and enable us to recognize what is familiar among the things we see. When these areas are damaged, people can lose their ability to identify objects visually, although they are still able to identify the same objects by touch or through some other sense.
69
Describe temporal lobe
- Located slightly above the ears
- Involved in the reception and interpretation of auditory stimuli
- Primary auditory cortex is where hearing registers
- Contains Wernicke’s area in the left temporal
70
Describe Wernicke’s area and consequences of it being damaged
Wernicke’s area: The language area in the temporal lobe involved in comprehension of the spoken word and in formulation of coherent speech and written language.
Wernicke’s aphasia: the patient’s spoken language is fluent, but the content is either vague or incomprehensible to the
listener.
71
People who are paralyzed on the right side>>>
Don't speak as speech is located in the left side of the brain
72
Functions of left hemisphere + damage
- Most of the language functions, including speaking, writing, reading, and understanding the spoken word
- It is specialized for mathematical abilities, particularly calculation;
- Processes information in an analytical and sequential, or step-by-step, manner.
- Logic is primarily though not exclusively a left-hemisphere activity.
- The left hemisphere coordinates complex movements by directly controlling the right side of the body and by indirectly controlling the movements of the left side of the body. It accomplishes this by sending orders across the corpus callosum to the right hemisphere so that the proper movements will be coordinated and executed smoothly.
If damaged: can't speak
73
Functions of the right hemisphere + damage
- visual-spatial relations
- lIstening, hearing
- The right hemisphere processes information holistically
- appears to be more specialized for complex
perceptual tasks. Consequently, the right hemisphere is better at
recognizing patterns, whether of familiar voices, melodies and music or things seen.
If damaged: no sense of humour and no understanding of sarcasm
74
Damage of corpus can result in...?
Severe epilepsy
75
Describe the split brain
When a visual image (an orange) is flashed on the right side of the screen, it is transmitted to the left (talking) hemisphere. When asked what he saw, the split-brain patient replies, “I saw an orange.”
When an image (an apple) is flashed on the left side of the screen, it is transmitted only to the right (non-verbal) hemisphere. Because the split-brain patient’s left (language) hemisphere did not receive the image, he replies, “I saw nothing.” But he can pick out the apple by touch if he uses his left
hand, proving that the right hemisphere
76
Handedness
- Is the reason clear?
- When is it established and due to which gene?
- Do males or females are more often affected?
- Issues related to forced change
- The reason is not clear
- Likely established before birth by one gene on X chromosome
- Males are more often left-handed
- Handedness is close to speech strip. If a child is often hit on his hand due to reinforcing change, he might develop speech problems
77
What is brain's plasticity?
- The ability of the brain to reorganize and compensate for brain damage.
- Decreases with age. 13 is the pick, then it declines
- Women have better plasticity
78
What is MRI?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging - diagnostic scanning technique that produces high resolution images of the structures of the brain. Allows to the see the functions of areas when they light up
79
What is EEG?
Electroencephalogram. Measures brain waves
80
What are the 2 brain waves that we have covered?
- Beta wave: occurs when an individual is alert and mentally or physically active.
- Alpha wave: occurs when an individual is awake but deeply relaxed, usually with the eyes closed.
81
What is a CT scan?
A brain-scanning technique involving a rotating X-ray scanner and a high-speed computer analysis that produces slice by-
slice, cross-sectional images of the structure of the brain.
82
What is a PET scan?
A brain-imaging technique that reveals activity in various parts of the brain on the basis of the amount of oxygen and glucose consumed.
Have to intake radioactively tagged oxygen or glucose first
83
What are the gender differences in the brain?
1) Evolutionary forces. Male the hunter: Aggressive. Woman the caregiver: Emotional
2) Structural differences. Females have a thicker corpus callosum- greater emotional awareness. More aware about their surrounding world
3) Pathways. Males & females carry out the same task in different manner
4) Limbic response. Females generate greater response in limbic system when they encounter something sad
84
What is the endocrine system?
Glands that manufacture and release hormones that are carried by the bloodstream and act on the different part of the body
85
Name the glands in the endocrine system
- Pituitary
- Thyroid
- Pineal
- Pancreas
- Adrenal
86
Describe the pituitary gland
- The master gland that release hormones to stimulate other glands
- Located at the base of the brain
- Produces growth hormone -> Gigantism or Dwarfism
87
Describe the thyroid gland
- Located in the throat
- Releases thyroxine- metabolism/ break down of food
- Too much -> hyper, action, thin
- Too little -> sluggish, overweight
88
Describe the Pineal gland
- Location: the brain
- Secretes melatonin
- Sleep cycle regulation
89
Describe Pancreas
- Located between stomach and intestines
- Secrete insulin
- Normal level -> hunger, low-> diabetes
- Sight and smell of food can result in production of insulin
90
Describe the adrenal glands
- Located above kidneys
- Turned on by ACTH released by pituitary
- Produce Epinephrin & Norepinephrine: act on the sympathetic nervous system
91
What happens during PMS?
Pre-menstrual syndrome: affects serotonin levels may lead to anxiety, depression and fluid retention
92
Role of sex glands in women
varies produce estrogen & progesterone
Regulate menstrual cycle **FSH (reduced or declined due to pregnancy)
Maintain gestation - child carrying (9 months of carrying the baby)
93
Role of sex glands in men
Testes produce testosterone: sperm count, sexual maturity and prenatal sexual differentiation
94
What are anabolic steroids and their side effects?
Anabolic steroids: manufactured testosterone
Side effects: rage, acne (armpits, back)
Women become manlike, grow hair
95
Describe hypothalamus
Key hormones: Oxytocin
- Produced by hypothalamus, released by pituitary
- Love hormone
- Social bonding for both sexes: promotes pro-social behavior
- Babies bolding though mom's milk. Oxytocin is found in milk
- Sexual activity- release of oxytocin
- Intensity of orgasm
- Also linked to stress reduction
96
What is ID?
The unconscious system of the personality, which contains life and death instincts
Operates on the pleasure principle
Is present at birth
97
What is ego?
- Freudian theory
- Logical, rational, realistic part of personality
- Evolves and drives its energy from ID
- Tries to satisfy the demands of ID
- It is the conscious mind
98
What makes up conscious and unconscious mind?
Conscious: ego
Unconscious: superego + Id
99
Define neurotransmitter
Chemicals that are released into the synaptic cleft from the axon of the sending neuron
Bind to appropriate receptors on the dendrites or cell body of the receiving neuron
Influences the cell either to fire on not to fire
