behavioral Flashcards

Question

as the number of photoreceptors that converge onto ganglion increases, what happens to resolution?

Answer 1

decreases!

Answer 2

ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape, and motion which is then compared to memory to determine what is being viewed - being able to recognize a car from a distance

Answer 3

parvo (p) - high spatial resolution, low temporal - very detailed at rest magno (m) - low spatial, high temporal - blurry in motion

Answer 4

stirrup (stapes) - connected to oval window of inner ear anvil (incus) hammer (malleus)

Answer 5

vestibulae - detects linear motion so spatial awareness

Answer 6

otolith - vestibulae for linear motion ampulla - semicircular canals for rotational motion

Answer 7

to the MGN (music) - LGN is site (look) to the temporal lobe auditory cortex - modified by inferior colliculus and superior olive

Answer 8

tonotopically - very close to the oval window

Answer 9

odor molecules are inhaled into nasal passage  bind to chemoreceptors on olfactory nerves in olfactory epithelium  send signal to olfactory bulbs  brain

Answer 10

dissolved compounds bind to chemoreceptors (acid for sour, sodium for salt) on taste buds (papillae)  brainstem  thalamus  higher order

Answer 11

pressure, temperature, vibration, pain pressure and vibration light touch pressure and texture stretch pain and temperature

Answer 12

kinesthetic sense - where your body is in space

Answer 13

perceptual organization will always be as simple, regular, and symmetric as possible 1. law of proximity – elements close to another tend to be perceived as a unit 2. law of similarity – objects that are similar tend to be grouped together 3. law of good continuation – elements that appear to follow in the same pathway tend to be grouped together 4. subjective contours – perceive contours resulting in shapes that are not actually there 5. law of closure – space is enclosed by a contour, it is perceived as a full picture

Answer 14

negative reinforcement – increase behavior by taking away something unpleasant positive reinforcement – increase behavior by giving something pleasant negative punishment – decrease behavior by taking something away positive punishment – decrease behavior by giving something -escape learning- behavior is to reduce bad stimuli that is already happening -avoidance learning – behavior to reduce the probability of something bad happening in the future

Answer 15

- identity and sexuality linked - each stage, tries to mitigate libidinal tension - unresolved conflict: fixation  anxiety  neurosis (mental disorder)

Answer 16

5 stages 1. oral stage (0-1) - libidinal energy focused on mouth - if fixation is not resolved at this stage, high levels of dependency may emerge later in life 2. anal stage (1-3) - focused on anus (release of tension by eliminating fecal waste) - if fixation not resolved o child becomes orderly or sloppy 3. Phallic stage (3-5) - males o Oedipus complex: jealousy (fathers relationship with mother) o will relate to father, develop sexual identity, internalize moral code, pick up hobbies - females o electra complex: similar to Oedipus 4. latency (5-puberty) - nothing really happens 5. genital stage (puberty- adulthood) - if all other stages were developed normally, normal heterosexual relationships occur - if not, other adult relationships would occur stages: orangutans always play with little gorillas

Answer 17

- social needs and social demands or pressure - emotional development and role of social environment - previous conflict does NOT have to be resolved before moving on to the next - resolution of conflict can be positive or negative, depending on skills/traits an individual gains from that stage and carries on to the next stage

Answer 18

6 1. pre-conventional (focus on consequence) – pre-adolescent stage 1 – avoids punishment, “he could get arrested” stage 2 – desire to gain rewards, “he could live long time with wife” 2. conventional (focus on relationships with others) – adolescent stage 3 – obedience to social norms, “its not okay to steal” stage 4 – maintenance of social order, “if he broke the rules, everyone might too” 3. post-conventional (high level of reasoning) – adulthood stage 5 – focus on individual rights, “the druggist should not overcharge” stage 6 – considers abstract/universal ethical principles, “human life has infinite worth”

Answer 19

a skill that is between what the child can do alone and what the child can do with adult guidance (knowledgable other)

Answer 20

1. fixed-ratio (FR) – reinforces behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior o rat being rewarded with pellet every third time it does behavior - continuous reinforcement is a fixed-ratio schedule in which behavior is rewarded every time is performed 2. variable-ratio (VR) – reinforces behavior after a varying number of performances, but such that the average number of performances to receive reward is relatively constant 3. fixed interval (FI) – reinforces behavior after a specified time period has elapsed o rat getting pellet after pushing level the first time, but must wait 60 seconds until it can get another pellet 4. variable interval (VI) – reinforces behavior the first time a behavior is performed after varying interval of time (changes between 60, 90, 3 min for example)

Answer 21

variable ratio

Answer 22

– learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced

Answer 23

located in parietal and frontal lobes of cerebral cortex - fires when they perform an action or when they see someone else perform that action

Answer 24

(declarative) memory – memories that require conscious recall - includes semantic memory (the facts we know) and episodic memory (our experiences)

Answer 25

semantic - facts we know episodic - emotional/experiences

Answer 26

retrieval cue that appears while learning lists primacy - remembering the first recency - remembering the last items

Answer 27

form of memory loss that includes both retrograde (loss of previously formed memories) and anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories) -formation of vivid memories to fill in the gaps

Answer 28

a retrieval error caused by the existence of other, usually similar, information - proactive interference: old memories interfere with forming new memories - retroactive interference: new memories interfere with old memories

Answer 29

confusion between semantic and episodic memory - a person remembers a the details of an event, but confuses the context under which those details were gained

Answer 30

starts as a sensory memory in projection area of sensory modality (it is brief unless maintained in consciousness)  moved into a short term memory in the hippocampus in temporal lobe  manipulated in hippocampus/ parietal and temporal lobe to working memory stored for later recall  over long periods of time, memories are gradually moved from hippocampus back to cerebral cortex

Answer 31

ascribed status – involuntary due to race, ethnicity, gender achieved – gained as a result of ones efforts/choices master status – by which they are most identified - usually how one few themselves

Answer 32

role conflict – difficulty satisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple roles role strain – difficulty satisfying multiple requirements of the same role

Answer 33

gemeinschaft (community) groups – unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography - families or neighbors gesellschaft (society) groups – unified by because of self-interests working together toward same goal - country or companies

Answer 34

dominance vs submissiveness friendliness vs unfriendliness instrumentally controlled vs emotionally expressive

Answer 35

bureaucracy – rational system of political organization, administration, discipline and control - are slow to change and less efficient than other organizations - example would include IRS

Answer 36

democratic/bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group

Answer 37

McDonaldization – shift in focus toward efficiency, predictability, calculability, control in societies

Answer 38

Basic model of emotional expression – established by Charles Darwin - stated that emotional expression involves a number of components: facial expressions, behaviors, postures, vocal changes, and physiological changes - primates and animals experience same facial expressions appraisal model – accepts there is a biologically predetermined expression for emotion (like the basic model of emotional expression), but there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression

Answer 39

Social construction model – no biological basis for emotion, they are based on experiences and situations alone - certain emotions only exist in certain social situations and vary with culture - a person must be familiar with social norms for a certain emotion to perform emotional behaviors in a situation

Answer 40

IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT – our attempts to influence how others see us three selves; authentic, ideal, tactical authentic self – who they actually are ideal – who we would like to be under optimal circumstances tactical – who we market ourselves as to reach expectations of others

Answer 41

- using flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over - alter-casting – ‘as a good MCAT student, you should…’

Answer 42

George Mead – “I” vs “Me” “I” – creative expression of individual “Me” – societal expectations of an individual

Answer 43

self-concept – answers to ‘who am I’ (only one answer) - includes past, present, future and self schema self-identity – individual components of our self-concept related to groups to which we belong (depends on what group we are around)

Answer 44

let the situation dictate what identity is most important in the situation - the more salient (important) a identity, the more we conform to the role expectations

Answer 45

actual – the way we see ourselves as we currently are ideal – person we want to be ought – representation of what others think we should be

Answer 46

1. pre-conventional (focus on consequence) – pre-adolescent stage 1 – avoids punishment (obedience), “he could get arrested” stage 2 – desire to gain rewards (self-interest), “he could live long time with wife” 2. conventional (focus on relationships with others) – adolescent stage 3 – obedience to social norms (conformity), “its not okay to steal” stage 4 – maintenance of social order (law and order), “if he broke the rules, everyone might too” 3. post-conventional (high level of reasoning) – adulthood stage 5 – focus on individual rights (social contract), “the druggist should not overcharge” stage 6 – considers abstract/universal ethical principles (universal human ethics), “human life has infinite worth”

Answer 47

id (unconscious)– basic, primal urges of survival and reproduction - pleasure principle - primary process to frustration is; obtain satisfaction now, not later - daydreaming that fulfills this requirement is called wish fulfillment ego – - reality principle - secondary process – guidance of the id (stave off pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained) o suspends work of primary process to meet the demands of objective reality o organizer of the mind – receives power and can never be fully independent of the id - also modulates the superego superego – personality’s perfectionist, judging our actions and responding with pride at accomplishments and guilt at failures - two subdivisions o the conscience is a collection of improper actions for which a child is punished o ego-ideal is proper actions for which a child is rewarded

Answer 48

life and death (usually as a result of trauma)

Answer 49

EGO’s recourse for reliving anxiety caused by the clash of the id and superego is through defense mechanisms (8): 1. repression – egos way of forcing undesired thoughts to the unconscious - aim is to disguise threating impulses 2. suppression is a more deliberate, conscious form of forgetting 3. regression – reversion to earlier adult stage 4. reaction formation – suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposite - a man pining after a female celebrity, but saying he hates her to reduce his stress about never meeting her 5. projection – people attribute undesired feelings onto others Rorschach inkblot test – assumption that the client projects his unconscious feelings into the shape thematic apperception test – series of pictures that requires patient to make up stories about it to reveal unconscious 6. rationalization – justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to self and society 7. displacement – transference of an undesired urge from one person or object to another - angry spouse may hold tongue at work towards boss but then snap at husband at home 8. sublimation – transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors - pent up sexual urges may be sublimated to a drive for business success

Answer 50

personal unconscious – similar to freud’s notion of unconscious collective unconscious – powerful system shared among all humans and considered to be from early ancestors persona – mask that we wear in public and part of personality we present to the world - adaptive to social interactions (increase behavior that improves social standing and decreases behavior that doesn’t) anima/animus – sex-inappropriate qualities - anima is suppressed female qualities in males that explain emotional behavior - animus is suppressed male qualities in females that explain power-seeking behavior shadow – appearance of unpleasant and socially unacceptable thoughts and feelings in consciousness self – point of intersection between the collective unconscious, personal unconsciousness and conscious mind

Answer 51

1. extraversion vs introversion 2. sensing (objective info about the world) vs intuiting (working with info abstractly) 3. thinking vs feeling - most people have a degree of both - led to development of Myers- Briggs type inventory (MBTI) personality test

Answer 52

Alder’s inferiority complex – an individual’s sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially superiority drives personality – striving enhances personality when it is oriented toward society, but yields disorder when it is selfish style of life – manifestations of the creative self and describes a person’s unique way of achieving superiority fictional finalism – life would be perfect if only… - focuses on expectations of the future vs past experiences

Answer 53

Horney – neurotic needs (need for affection, approval, etc.) basic anxiety – inadequate parenting causes helplessness and vulnerability basic hostility – neglect causes anger three basic mechanisms for overcoming these; moving toward people to obtain security, moving against people, withdrawing from people - healthy people use all three strategies - highly threatened child will use just one and will keep that into adulthood

Answer 54

A) Kurt Lewin’s Force Field Theory – doesn’t believe in fixed traits, habits or structures (like ego, id, superego) - focuses the present forces (influences) on that person’s life B) Abraham Maslow – hierarchy of needs - studied Einstein, Beethoven, etc. - self-actualized people experience peak experiences (experiences that have important and lasting effects on others) C) George Kelly – personal construct psychology - individuals acquire new constructs that will allow him to successfully predict troublesome events D) Carl Rogers – client-centered, person-centered, nondirective therapy - helps clients reflect on problems, choice, and to determine own destiny - helps reconcile differences between ‘selves’ - termed unconditional positive regard during therapy

Answer 55

personality traits: PEN MODEL – psychotocism, extraversion, neuroticism psychotocism – measure of nonconformity or social deviance extraversion – measure of tolerance for social interaction/stimulation neuroticism – measure of emotional arousal in stressful situation OCEAN MODEL – openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

Answer 56

Gordon Allport – cardinal, central, secondary traits cardinal – trait which person organizes life around central – characteristics of a personality that are easy to infer secondary – limited to occurrence (only appear in close groups or specific social situations) functional autonomy – behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created behavior

Answer 57

Behaviorist – SKINNER – how the environment shapes us - based on operant conditioning - therapy focuses on learning skills/changing behavior through operant conditioning techniques - token economies: positive behavior rewarded with tokens Social cognitive – how the environment shapes us and how we interact with that environment reciprocal determinism – our thoughts, feelings, behaviors and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions

Answer 58

Aggression – offers protection against perceived and real threats - governed by amygdala – tells us if something is or is not a threat - prefrontal cortex – will reduce emotional reactivity from amygdala

Answer 59

Cognitive neoassociation model – we are more likely to respond to other aggressively when we are feeling negative emotions (tired, sick, frustrated)

Answer 60

1. secure attachment – has consistent care giver - upset when they leave and comforted when they return 2. avoidant attachment – caregiver has little or no response to distressed child - children don’t show preference between caregiver/stranger - don’t care if caregiver leaves or stays 3. ambivalent attachment – caregiver has inconsistent response to child’s distress (some appropriate, some not) - child will be distressed on separation but mixed responses when they return - anxious-ambivalence because child is anxious about reliability of caregiver 4. disorganized attachment – show no clear pattern of behavior in response to caregiver - mix of different behaviors including avoidance, resistance, dazed, rocking back and forth - usually associated with erratic behavior and social withdrawal from caregiver

Answer 61

5 recognized mechanisms of mate choice : 1. phenotypic benefit – will increase attraction and hence offspring 2. sensory bias – use something to attract mates that are already a preexisting preference (extra fat bear that could mean he knows where food is) 3. fisherian/runaway selection – positive feedback mechanism where a trait has no effect or negative effect which leads to its exaggeration over time - for example, peacock feathers 4. indicator traits– signify good health 5. genetic compatibility – attraction to starkly different genetic makeups reduce chances of recessive disorders

Answer 62

Halo effect – cognitive bias where judgements about a specific aspect of a person can be affected by ones overall impression about a person - seeing an attractive person as more friendly just-world hypothesis – cognitive bias where good things happen to good people, bad to bad people; noble acts rewarded, evil acts punished - blaming the victim self-serving bias – individuals view their own success based on internal factors, while viewing failures based on external factors - a student saying she did good on a test because she studied, but bad on a test because unfair questions

Answer 63

ATTRIBUTION THEORY – tendency of people to infer causes of other people’s behavior dispositional causes (internal) – relate to the persons whose behavior is being considered (beliefs, attitudes, personality) situational causes (external) – relate to the features of the surroundings (threats, money, social norms, peer pressure)

Answer 64

consistency cues – consistency cues consensus cues – matches others behavior distinctiveness cues – uses similar behavior in similar situations

Answer 65

Fundamental Attribution Error – generally biased to make dispositional attributions rather than situational, especially in negative situations

Answer 66

stereotype content model paternalistic – high warmth and low competence - group is looked down on and ignored - ie. seniors admiration – high warmth, high competence - group is looked upon with pride and good feeling - ie. in group or close allies contemptuous – low warmth, high competence - viewed with resentment or annoyance - i.e. welfare recipients, poor people envious – low warmth, high competence - group is viewed with jealousy and bitterness - i.e jews, rich people, Asians

Answer 67

self-fulfilling prophecy – expectations of a group then results in confirmation of those expectations - a medical student knowing first years don’t do well tying knots so when he goes to tie a knot he struggles stereotype threat – people concerned about confirming a negative stereotype about ones social group - will cause them to avoid or do worse at that activity, resulting in self- fulfilling prophecy - ie. women driving

Answer 68

beta and alpha 1 - theta 2 - theta, K complex and sleep spindles 3 - delta 4 - delta REM - rapid eye movement and sleep paralysis - DREAMS

Answer 69

melatonin from pineal gland cortisol

Answer 70

dys - sleep apnea, narcolepsy, insomnia para - sleep paralysis, sleep walking

Answer 71

mesolimbic dopamine

Answer 72

selective - paying attention to something while determining if additional stimulus is background requires attention divided - uses automatic processing to pay attention to multiple activities at once

Answer 73

phonology morphology semantics syntax pragmatics

Answer 74

innate and controlled by the language acquisition device (LAD) controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcements by parents and caregivers language development caused by a motivation to communicate/interact with others

Answer 75

lens through which we view and interpret the world is created by language

Answer 76

brokas - difficulty forming speech wernickes - difficulty making sense of what words they are saying difficulty repeating words back

Answer 77

protypical or stereotypical factors are used for analysis rather than actual data

Answer 78

9 to 12 months 12 to 18 months 18 - 20 months 2 to 3 years 5 years

Answer 79

**Functionalism** – focuses on function of each component of society and how the components fit together * manifest functions: deliberate actions that serve to help a given system * latent functions: unexpected, unintended positive consequences of manifest functions **conflict theory** – power differentials are created and how they dictate social order * anger based off inequality **symbolic interactionism** – the way individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols * thumbs up is approval in America, but offensive in other cultures **social constructionism** – individuals and groups make decisions to agree upon concepts and principles * the concept that paper model holds value to people

Answer 80

**rational choice theory** – people will make decisions that maximize their potential benefit and minimize potential harm (pros and cons) **exchange theory** – rational choice theory applied to group setting * ppl will continue to behave in ways that are praised and avoid behavior that is not

Answer 81

capitalist economies – **owner profits** from success of business * focus on free market trade * success is driven by consumerism and little intervention from central governing bodies * usually will have **division of labor** * specific components of a large task are separated and assigned to skilled and trained individuals socialist economies – **profit is distributed equally** to workforce * large industries are collective and compensation is provided based on the work contribution of each individual in system

Answer 82

Four Key Tenets of Medical Ethics: 1. beneficence – act in patients best interest 2. nonmaleficence – do no harm 3. autonomy – freedom of choice 4. justice – similar care to all patients

Answer 83

*cultural lag* – idea that material culture changes more quickly than symbolic culture

Answer 84

race – phenotypic differences between groups, cannot choose whether to display or not ethnicity – cultural factors (language, nationality, religion), can choose not to display

Answer 85

symbolic ethnicity – connection to ethnicity in which ethnic symbols remain important even when it does not in everyday life * for example irish americans celebrating st pattys day

Answer 86

demographic transition model – maps from pre-industrial to industrial population * death rates will drop first, increasing population * followed by decrease in fertility * population will increase

Answer 87

**Malthusian theory** – how exponential growth of a population can outpace growth of food supply * prediction that as third-world nations industrialize, the pace at which the world population will grow is much faster than the ability to generate food

Answer 88

**proactive** **movements**– promote social change **reactive movements** – resist social change

Answer 89

**Social facilitation** – tendency of people to perform at a different level based on the fact that people are around (better at simple/worse at complex) **Deindividuation** – loss of self-awareness in a group, which can lead to drastic behavior (riots) **Peer pressure** – social influence by people they consider equal Group **polarization** – tendency toward making decisions in a group that are more extreme than the thought of the individual group members **Group think** – focusing on ideas that arise from within the group without considering ideas from outside the group * ethics may be compromised * includes illusion of invulnerability, collective rationalization, illusion of morality, excessive stereotyping, pressure for conformity, self-censorship, illusion of unanimity, mindguard

Answer 90

tendency of an individual to put in less effort when there is other people around (group project dont do as much work)

Answer 91

cognitive dissonance means having two opposing thoughts or opinions at once during peer pressure, people can undergo identity shift effect where they adopt the groups standards as their own even when it is an internal conflict

Answer 92

**Socialization** – process of developing and spreading norms, customs and beliefs **Norms** – acceptable behavior **Stigma** – disapproval or dislike of someone because they don’t fit into the ideal society **Deviance** – any violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society **Conformity** – changing beliefs/behaviors to fit into society

Answer 93

Mores – widely observed social norms Folkways – norms that are polite in social interactions (shaking hands after tennis match)

Answer 94

Differential association theory – degree to which one is surrounded by ideals that adhere to social norms vs ideals that go against them Strain theory – explains deviance as a natural reaction to the difference between social goals and social structure

Answer 95

Internalization – personally agreeing with group ideas Identification – outwardly agreeing but not inwardly

Answer 96

Three components of attitude – ABC; affective, behavioral, cognitive **Affective** – the way a person feels towards something (emotional) **Behavioral** – the way a person acts with respect to something **Cognitive** – the way somebody thinks about something

Answer 97

1. Functional attitudes theory: attitudes serve four functions * **Knowledge** – consistency and stability (a person who cares about politics can be predicted to vote in the next election) * **ego expression** – solidify our self-identity * **Adaptation** – ability to display socially acceptable attitudes * **ego defense** – protect our self-esteem/justify actions that we know are wrong

Answer 98

1. elaborate likelihood model **central route processing** – elaborates deeply about information, thinks about its meaning and purpose **peripheral route processing** – does not elaborate, focusing on superficial details like appearance, etc. 1. Social Cognitive theory * People learn how to behave by observing the behaviors of others * Based on three components: **behavior, personal factors and environment**

Answer 99

Primary factors that influence **EMOTION** are * **Instincts**: innate, evolutionary motivation for people to behavior in a certain way * **Arousal**: people perform actions to maintain arousal * **Drives**: internal states of tension that drive behavior based on goals * **Primary** – bodily processes * **Secondary** – learning/accomplishments/emotions * NEEDs

Answer 100

(highest priority to lowest) 1. Physiological needs 2. Safety and security 3. Love and belonging 4. Self esteem 5. Self- actualization

Answer 101

**Self-determination theory** – focuses on three universal needs; autonomy, competence, relatedness incentive theory of motivation – motivation is pushed by desire for rewards and wanting to avoid punishment expectancy-theory of motivation – motivation is based on expectation of how well they will perform task

Answer 102

**opponent-process theory** – explains the use of drugs * As you keep taking the drug, your body counteracts and will increase tolerance and withdrawal symptoms

Answer 103

**THREE ELEMENTS OF EMOTION**:PCB **Physiological** – changes in ANS **Cognitive –** subjective interpretation of feelings being experienced **Behavioral –** facial expressions/body language

Answer 104

1. James-lange theory – NS arousal leads to cognitive response 2. Cannon-bard – simultaneous arousal of the NS and cognitive response lead to action 3. Schachter-singer – NS and interpretation of context lead to cognitive response

Answer 105

Explicit memories (episodic memories of the events that happened) – stored in hippocampus in temporal lobe Implicit memories (the actual emotion felt) – stored in amygdala

Answer 106

**LEFT prefrontal cortex** – associated with positive emotions **RIGHT prefrontal cortex** – associated with negative emotions

Answer 107

DORSAL prefrontal – attention/cognition VENTRAL prefrontal – experiencing emotion VENTROMEDIAL prefrontal – decision making

Answer 108

Two stages of appraisal of stress: 1. **Primary** – classifying stress as irrelevant, stressful, positive 2. **Secondary** – evaluating if organism can cope with that stress

Answer 109

General adaptation syndrome – three stages 1. **Alarm** – initial reaction to stressor, fight or flight NS 2. **Resistance** – body continues to release hormones to combat stress 3. **Exhaustion** – body can no longer maintain elevated response (which leads to medical problems)