Beliefs in Society - Religion in a Global Context

Question 1

What is fundamentalism?

Answer 1

An ideology that appeals to the idea of a previous (possibly religious) golden age that is under threat and that we must, in some way, seek to return to, such as via more conservative moral codes.

Question 2

How does an authoritative sacred text aid fundamentalism?

Answer 2

Fundamentalists, due to the unquestionable truth of their text, view all other views as false and refuse to engage in rational argument with them.

Question 3

Aldridge (2013) and interpretation:

Answer 3

The Christian fundamentalist perspective of the Bible is but a literalist interpretation, rather than the fundamental truth of it.

Question 4

How is an ‘us vs. them’ mentality a feature of fundamentalism?

Answer 4

Fundamentalists separate society into those who hold their views (in the way they do) and those that don’t, viewing it as a battle rather than a dialogue.

Question 5

Davie (2013) and ‘us vs. them’:

Answer 5

They seek to establish islands of certainty amidst social and cultural chaos, building into their ‘us vs. them’ ideology.

Question 6

How is an aggressive reaction a feature of fundamentalism?

Answer 6

In order to gain public attention, these groups will engage in controversial behaviours aimed to shock, intimidate or cause harm.

Question 7

How is use of modern technology a feature of fundamentalism?

Answer 7

Fundamentalists often engage in a paradox in which they use modern technology, such as televangelism or modern nuclear weapons, in their goal to return to a previous age.

Question 8

How is patriarchy a feature of fundamentalism?

Answer 8

Hawley (1994): A subsidiary belief of a ‘return to the golden age’, is the subordination of women.

Question 9

How is prophecy a feature of fundamentalism?

Answer 9

Christian fundamentalists argue that there is an oncoming ‘end of days’ that invigorates their beliefs.

Question 10

How is conspiracy theory a feature of fundamentalism?

Answer 10

The ‘us vs. them’ mentality often builds into the idea of a secret (often Jewish :() cabal of individual seeking to repress their ‘truth’.

Question 11

Davie (2013) and the source of fundamentalism:

Answer 11

‘Fundamentalists are themselves products of modernity, in so far as they are born out of the clash between modernity and traditional cultures’.

Question 12

Giddens (1999) and fundamentalism:

Answer 12

Fundamentalism is a response to the constant choice and risk of a late-modern era, promising rigid and dogmatic truth claims. It is a retreat into faith-based answers to avoid risk.

Question 13

Giddens (1999) and the alternative to fundamentalism:

Answer 13

He contrasts fundamentalism with cosmopolitanism: a tolerance of the views of others and reflection and alteration of beliefs based on new information (‘reflexive thinking’), rationalisation rather than sacred doctrine and personal choice, meaning and improvement. This is an adoption of modernity, rather than a rejection.

Question 14

Bauman (1992) and fundamentalism:

Answer 14

Fundamentalism as a response to the uncertainties of a postmodern world.

Question 15

Castells (2010) and postmodernity:

Answer 15

There are two responses to postmodernity:
- Resistance identity: a defensive reaction to uncertainty and retreat into fundamentalism
- Project identity: the response of the progressive, those who want to engage with social change and movements

Question 16

Beckford (2011) and criticising fundamentalist theory:

Answer 16

• They distinguish too sharply between cosmopolitanism and fundamentalism, ignoring ‘hybrid’ identities
• Lumps all forms of fundamentalism together
• Reinventing tradition (fundametalist) can be considered a modern, ‘reflexive’ activity as it is also a form of modification of beliefs

Question 17

Haynes (1998) and Islamic fundamentalism:

Answer 17

Islamic fundamentalism was not just a reaction to globalisation; in the Middle East, failure of local elites to raise standard of living also drove fundamentalism.

Question 18

Bruce (2008) and monotheism:

Answer 18

Bruce sees fundamentalism as confined to monotheists: the belief in a sacred text that lays down the actual words of God fuels fundamentalist refusal of debate, whereas polytheists do not have a single text so can abide multiple interpretations without any legitimate claim to the sole truth. Hinduism has been described as a collection of beliefs rather than a single one.

Question 19

Bruce (2008) and the two sources of fundamentalism:

Answer 19

Bruce distinguishes between Western and Eastern fundamentalism by the origin of causal change:
- In the West, those change takes place from within society, such as the New Right fighting ‘permissiveness’ to bring back God
- In the East, those change is thrust upon them by external forces; in the Middle East, ‘Western values’ are seen as being imposed over local values religion.

Question 20

Davie (2013) and a new form of fundamentalism:

Answer 20

Davie argues that, since the enlightenment, people lost faith in religion in favour of secular ideologies like science, causing religious fundamentalism. However, since the 70’s, this faith has waned due to things like global insecurity and climate change, meaning that secular enlightenment ideologie have had to struggle in the same way as religion did previously. As such, some supporters are attracted to a form of secular fundamentalism to protect their way of life.

Question 21

Give an example of secular fundamentalism:

Answer 21

In 2004, France banned religious symbols in schools and made it illegal to wear a veil in public in 2010.

Question 22

Ansell (2005) and secular fundamentalism:

Answer 22

This is a form of cultural racism that hides attempts to preserve cultural identity behind liberal language of universal equality and social intergration.

Question 23

Huntington (2004) and ‘clash of civilisations’:

Answer 23

Cultural differences have become more important than political or cultural clashes; however, given globalisation has eroded national identity, states have formed into 9 different ‘civillisations’ based on religion which is more difficult to debate. He argues that history is a struggle of ‘progress against barbarism’ and that the West must strengthen their liberal democratic Christian identity in the face of threat from Islam.

Question 24

Give two criticisms of Huntington (2004).

Answer 24

• Jackson (2006): this is an example of orientalism, Western typification of Easterners (especially Muslims) as untrustworth and inferior ‘others’ to justify their own exploitation and human rights abuses
• Casanova (2005): he ignores important internal divisions, such as between Sunni and Shi’a Islam

Question 25

Inglehart and Norris (2011) and the real clash of civilsations:

Answer 25

Contrast to Huntington's theory, what divides the West and Islam is not democracy but gender and sexuality: both largely support democracy but divide over abortion, divorce, homosexuality, etc. There has been a growing global consensus over democracy, but not about 'self-expression values'.

Question 26

Bruce (2002) and cultural defence:

Answer 26

This is a function of religion whereby it serves to unite a community and protect their shared cultural values and identity against an ecternal force, religion has special value as it symbolises this.

Question 27

Give an example of cultural defence.

Answer 27

During Soviet oppression, the Polish Catholic Church was banned but continued to embody the Polish national identity for many Poles; this allowed it to serve as a rallying point, playing a role in the fall of communism in Poland and having significant influence after.

Question 28

Nanda (2008) and a rebuttal to secularisation:

Answer 28

India is experiencing a unique phenomenon: it has a huge and prosperous educated urban middle-class that would, presumably, cause religion to decline in India. However, India is only becoming more religious: the CSDS (2007) finding 6x more Indians felt they had become more religious than less. In fact, also counter to secularisation, that urban educated middle class is more religious than their rural, illiterate counterpart.

Question 29

Nanda (2008) and the cause of religiosity in India:

Answer 29

Nanda argues that increased religiosity amon India's middle-class is due to tension between traditional Hindu asceticism and their new prosperity, resolved by modern holy men who preach that desire is not bad, but a manifestation of divinity and that consumerism can be 'spiritually balanced' by paying for certain rituals that also serve to display one's wealth.

Question 30

Nanda (2003) and Hindu ultra-nationalism:

Answer 30

The Pew Institute found that 93% of Indians view their culture as superior; Indian prosperity is increasingly being attributed to 'Hindu values', a view promoted by politicians and media that Hinduism is essential to the Indian way of life. Hinduism then becomes a civil religion as the worship of Hindu Gods becomes the sames as the worship of the state of India, widening the gulf between Hindus and non-Hindus. It also penetrates supposedly secular public life, with the military developing weapons with ancient Hindu magical powers.

Question 31

Redding (1990) and development in East Asia:

Answer 31

Redding sees the success of the East Asian 'Tiger Economies' as due to their 'post-Confucian values' acting similar to Calvinism and the Protestant Ethic, encouraging wealth accumulation for its own sake.

Question 32

Berger (2003) and Pentecostalism:

Answer 32

Berger argues that Pentecostalism in Latin America has taken on a similar role to Calvinism, encouraging economic growth through 'this-worldly' asceticism. However, he underlines Weber's point that religion has to coincide with natural resources: despite the growth of Pentecostalism in Northern Brazil, there has been little growth compared to the resource-rich South.

Question 33

Lehmann (2002) and the success of Pentecostalism:

Answer 33

Pentecostalism's success in the developing world is part of a second phase of Christian expansion, spreading due to popularity rather than imposition onto indigenous populations by colonial forces. This is due to its ability to validat local beliefs, such as the validation of the truth of posession cults, whilst incorporating its own beliefs, such as the condemnation of such cults as demonic, leading to, for example, the 'Africanisation' of Christianity, rather than the complete erasure of local religions.