beliefs theories Flashcards
(25 cards)
Functionalism
Durkheim - religion unites people
he suggests that there is a fundamental distinction
between the sacred and the profane found in all religions which tells members of society what is considered important and unimportant in their society.
The sacred are things set apart, that inspire feelings
of awe, fear and wonder, and are surrounded by prohibitions.
EX - sacred texts
The profane are things that have no special
significance – things that are ordinary and mundane.
EX - TV
He argued that totemism — the practice of worshipping a sacred object, known as a totem (usually named after the name of a tribe or
group) — represented religion in its most basic form.
When worshipping the totem, people are really worshipping society. This means religious beliefs, such as totemism, and accompanying ceremonies and rituals, act as a kind of social glue, binding people together and building bonds between them.
By sharing beliefs people develop moral ties between themselves, and a sense of shared identity, commitment and belonging — what
Durkheim called the collective conscience. This means they come
to ‘think as one’
This helps to bind society together and therefore religion acts as a conservative force – keeping things as they are.
For Durkheim, shared regular religious rituals such as attending church services, hymn singing etc reinforce the collective conscience and maintain social integration, therefore preventing any damaging rapid social change.
Functionalism
Durkheim - religion unites people
EVALUATION
However, Radical Feminists would argue that traditional religions reinforce patriarchal values rather than values benefiting the shared culture. For example, religious rituals that bind us towards celebrating Jesus can also bind us to religious laws and customs that are oppressive towards women. Celebrating marriage under the eyes of God may force women from the Catholic Church to follow religious laws and customs which tell them that using contraception or abortion is a sin.
secularisation proves it isn’t very good at acting as a social glue
F
Parsons - Religion answers the ultimate Qs
It is the primary source of meaning – it answers ‘ultimate questions’ about the meaning of life
In particular, it answers ultimate questions about the human condition, such as why the good die young.
Such events defy our sense of justice and make life appear meaningless, and this may undermine our commitment to society’s values.
By providing answers/justification and certainty, religion ensures that no one feels the need for societal reform
Therefore religion = conservative force
F
Parsons - Religion answers the ultimate Qs
EVALUATION
Religion is used to keep the subordinate group passive
Marxism - religion provides comfort
justifies the suffering of the proletariat and just provides comfort to keep them passive
F
Malinowski - Religion provides comfort
Similarly, Malinowski argued that religion performs positive functions for both individuals and society. Religion provides a sense of certainty and comfort in two situations:
- Where the outcome is important but uncontrollable and thus uncertain
AND
- At times of life crises
- Malinowski found this when studying the Trobriand Islanders. · They survived on fish - at times, it was necessary to fish in the ocean. The ocean was unpredictable and could be unsafe. ·To gain a sense of control in this uncontrollable situation, the islanders performed a ritual – ‘canoe magic’ – before they went fishing in the ocean. They believed that if they had performed this ritual, they would return safely from the journey.
The religious ritual therefore gave them a sense of control in an uncontrollable situation.
In this way, religion is seen as a ‘God of the gaps’. Helping people to continue fulfilling the roles of society even when they are unsure of what will happen in the future.
- Religion can provide a source of comfort, explanation and meaning for individuals when faced by crises, such as bereavement. All major religions promise believers of an afterlife helping us to cope with death of loved ones.
For example, believing that elderly relatives go to heaven to be reunited with their loved ones.
In fact, Malinowski argues that death is the main reason for the existence of religion itself.
Funeral services, for example, act as a source of comfort for the bereaved - either with beliefs in life after death, or by the support gained in such moments of stress through the gathering of friends and relatives.
Malinowski - Religion provides comfort
EVALUATION
This criticism is linked to Weber’s idea that the rationalisation process has undermined religious understanding of the world as people turn to science rather than religion to understand medical health problems and death of lived ones.
Marxists would also reject the positive view Malinowski sees in religion helping individuals to perform roles for society. Marx argued that religion dulls the pain of exploitation and alienation that the working class face in capitalist society. Religion is an opium of the people that ensures individuals continue to work in low paid low skilled jobs. For Marx, religion does not have a positive function, only a function that serves the interests of the ruling class
Bellah - civil religion
Like Parsons, Bellah is interested in how religion unifies society, especially a multi-faith society like America. ·
What unifies America is an over-arching civil religion – a belief that attaches sacred qualities to society itself.
In the American case, civil religion is a faith in Americanism or ‘the American way of life’.
Bellah argues that civil religion integrates society in a way that individual religions cannot. While none of the many individual churches and denominations can claim the loyalty of all Americans, civil religion can.
American civil religion involves loyalty to the nation state and belief in God, both of which are equated with being a true American. It is expressed in various rituals, symbols and beliefs; such as the pledge of allegiance to the flag, singing the national anthem, the Lincoln Memorial, and phrases such as ‘one nation under god’. ·
However, this is not a specifically Catholic, Protestant or Jewish God, but rather an American God. It sacralises the American way of life and binds together Americans from many different ethnic and religious backgrounds.
Bellah - civil religion
EVALUATION
Sociologists such as Bruce argue that there is a rise of The New Christian Right in America which believe many Americans have turned away from God. They argue that the increase in abortions and same sex relationships in the USA is evidence of the countries declining Christian beliefs. The NCR protest against other Americans and campaign for the pro life movement which wants a ban on all forms of abortion. This conflict in American society suggests that there can be no sacred, single, shared ‘American way of life’ binding people with different beliefs together in that society.
Marxism
Marx - Religion provides comfort
The proletariat are exploited and feel alienated in the workplace.
Marx said alienation is highest in working class workers in capitalist societies.
In these dehumanising conditions, they exploited turn to religion
as a form of consolation.
Marx says it ‘is the opium of the people’
·Religion acts as an opiate to dull the pain of exploitation for the working classes, but just as opium masks pain rather than treating its cause, religion masks the underlying problem of exploitation
that creates the need for the drug.
Instead, religious promises of the afterlife create an illusory happiness that distracts attention from the true
cause of unhappiness, which is the capitalist
system
theodicy of disprivilege - belief that salvation may be granted as a reward for earthly poverty
Marx - Religion provides comfort
EVALUATION
Malinowski
Marxism
Religion legitimates the hierarchy
Religion also legitimates the power and privilege of the dominant
class by making their position appear divinely ordained.
For example, the 16th century idea of the Divine Right of Kings was
the belief that the king was God’s representative on earth and is
owed total obedience.
Disobedience is not just illegal, but a sinful challenge to God’s
authority. This promoted acceptance of the hierarchy as God-
given.
Another example of this is the Hindu caste system.
This support the Marxist view as the wealthy have ‘earned’ respect through God and the poor are almost undeserving - the hierarchy must be obeyed
Religion legitimates the hierarchy
EVALUATION
Neo-Marxists like Gramsci see religion as capable of assisting social change rather continuing the oppression of the lowest status groups in society. Examples of religion doing this is seen in MLK using Christianity or Malcolm X using The Nation of Islam to inspire Black Americans to empower themselves against institutional racism and fight for a better future for Black people in American society.
Enforces the hierarchy between men and women not MC and WC
Marx & Lenin - Religion maintains capitalism
For Marx, ideology is a belief system that distorts people’s
perception of reality in ways that serve the interests of the ruling
class.
He argues that the class that controls the economy also controls
the production and distribution of ideas in society, through
institutions such as the church, education and the media –
ideological state apparatuses.
In Marx’s view, religion operates as an ideological weapon used by
the ruling class to legitimate (justify) the suffering of the poor as
something inevitable and God-given.
Religion misleads the poor into believing that their suffering is virtuous and that they will be favoured in the afterlife - Theodicy of Disprivilege
For example, according to Christianity:
‘it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a
rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven.’
Such ideas create a false class consciousness – a distorted view of reality that prevents the poor from acting to change their situation.
Similarly, Lenin described religion as spiritual gin – an intoxicant doled out to the masses by the ruling class to confuse them and keep them in their place.
In Lenin’s view, the ruling class use religion cynically to manipulate the masses and keep them from attempting to overthrow the ruling class by creating a mystical fog that obscures reality.
religion oppresses women
4 main points
legitimates the hierarchy - De Beauvoir and sacred texts
maintains patriarchy - Armstrong Religious organisations (structure)
segregates the sexes - Holm Places of worship (the building)
is an instrument of male domination - Laws and customs
legitimates the hierarchy - De Beauvoir and sacred texts
In her book ’The Second Sex’, Simone de Beauvoir pioneered a
feminist perspective on religion, portraying religion as an instrument of domination.
She argued that men usually control religious organisations and claim that their authority comes from God; for example, kings used ‘divine right’ to justify their position.
Some religions may portray women as being closer to God, but only if they are passive and do not question male authority.
Religion then gives women a false belief that their suffering will be
rewarded in Heaven. De Beauvoir calls this a false consciousness that keeps women in their place.
It deceives women into thinking they are equal to men, when in reality they are ‘the second sex’ - Presented in religious ideas such as genesis
Sacred texts largely feature the doings of male gods, prophets etc, and are usually written and interpreted by men.
Stories often reflect anti-female stereotypes, such as that of Eve who,
in the story of Genesis, brought ‘original sin’ to the world. Eve breaks her promise to God and tempts Adam to eat the forbidden fruit. This portrays women as morally weak and untrustworthy.
Radical Feminists argue that the bible therefore reinforces patriarchal ideology in society as Gods punishment for Eve’s behaviour was that all women will have to suffer painful childbirth and be controlled by their husbands.
maintains patriarchy - Armstrong Religious organisations (structure)
They are mainly male-dominated despite the fact that women often participate more than men in these organisations.
For example, Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women to become priests.
Karen Armstrong (1993) sees women’s exclusion from the priesthood of most religions as evidence of their marginalisation.
The Pentecostalist church sees men as the rightful head of the household and head of the church. Women are not allowed to take on these leadership roles within this religious organisation
Holm - Women face a stained glass ceiling
Woodhead (2002) argues that the exclusion of women from the Catholic priesthood is evidence of the Church’s deep unease about the emancipation of women generally.
segregates the sexes - Holm Places of worship (the building)
Places of worship often segregate the sexes and marginalise women, for example seating them behind screens while the men occupy the central and more sacred spaces.
Women’s participation may be restricted, for example not being allowed to preach or to read from sacred texts.
Taboos that regard menstruation, pregnancy and childbirth as
polluting may also prevent participation. For example, in Islam,
menstruating women are not allowed to touch the Qur’an.
Jean Holm (1994) describes this as the devaluation of women in
contemporary religion.
is an instrument of male domination - Laws and customs
Religious laws and customs may give women fewer rights than men,
for example in access to divorce, how many spouses they may marry
decision-making, dress codes etc.
Many religions legitimate and reinforce women’s traditional gender
roles within the family. The Catholic Church ban female members from having abortions or using contraception. The Taliban have banned girls from receiving education and these girls and entering professions such as Law or Medicine.
Religious influences on cultural norms may also lead to unequal treatment, such as genital mutilation or punishments for sexual transgressions.
what should be used to evaluate that religion does oppress women
religion does not oppress women - liberal feminism
religion does not oppress women
4 key ideas
culture is oppressive, not religion - El Sadawi
religious forms of feminism - Woodhead
Does not reproduce patriarchy
Religion empowers women
Does not reproduce patriarchy
Many liberal feminists argue that religion today does not help to
maintain patriarchy instead many believe there has been a ‘march of
progress’ happening
Since 1992 Church of England – has allowed women to become priests and since 1972 and as of 2015 female bishops were allowed with 1/5 of priests being women
Non-Orthodox Judaism has allowed female rabbis
religious forms of feminism - Woodhead
Linda Woodhead (2002) criticises feminist explanations that equate
religion with patriarchy and the oppression of women.
While accepting that much traditional religion is patriarchal, she
emphasises that this is not true of all religions. She argues that there are ‘religious forms of feminism’ - ways women use religion to gain freedom and respect.
Woodhead uses the e.g. of the hijab or veil worn by many Muslim
women. While Western feminists tend to see it as a symbol of
oppression, to the wearer it may symbolise resistance to oppression.
Woodhead argues that some Muslim women choose to wear the hijab to escape the confines of the home, entering education and employment.
The hijab frees women from the male gaze, allowing them to enter the public sphere while retaining their culture.
Butler uses the examples of British Muslims who are presented with
more choice due to the hybridity of cultures and religion. Women wear a headscarf as part of their identity so are embracing their religion (Braisian)
culture is oppressive, not religion - El Sadaawi
While religion may be used to oppress women, Nawal El Saadawi (1980) argues that it is not the direct cause of their subordination. Rather, this is the result of patriarchal forms of society coming into existence in the last few thousand years.
However, once in existence, patriarchy began to influence and re-shape religion. For example, men reinterpreted religious beliefs in ways that favoured patriarchy.
Thus religion now contributes to women’s oppression.
Like Armstrong, El Saadawi sees the rise of monotheism as legitimating the power of men.
give examples of women who were in poweful positions in religion
Religion empowers women
New Age Movements often empower women rather than oppress them.
NAM’s such as crystal healing and meditation can help women cope with the demands of their improved position in society. Many women today are in professional job roles and are still expected to be the primary carer in the family.
NAM’s offer women the individual sphere where they can escape the work sphere and the private sphere (of the primary care role) and discover their true authentic identities. This shows NAM’s can help and empower women rather than oppress them like traditional religions arguably do.
Women can reach high/top positions within these movements
empowering more females to take on the dominate role
