Beliefs theorists Flashcards
(113 cards)
1
Q
Weber - definitions of religion
A
Substantive definition of religion. “Belief in a supernatural power that cannot be explained scientifically”
2
Q
Durkheim - Definitions of religion
A
Defined based on contribution made to social integration, functional definition.
3
Q
De Beauvoir
A
Religion exploits and oppresses women. Teaches them to be meek, accept inequality and exploitation for rewards in the afterlife
4
Q
Holm
A
Menstruation is seen as unholy in many religions inc Islam. Described as the devaluation of women in religion
5
Q
Woodhead - patriarchy in religion
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Exclusion of women from priesthood is evidence of wider Catholic unease about emancipation of women
6
Q
El Sadaawi
A
Religion is not the direct cause of female subordination. Patriarchy reshaped religion (esp to be monotheistic) in male interests
7
Q
Armstrong - Feminist view of religion
A
Early religions didn’t always depict women as subordinate to men. This emerged with monotheism, almost always a male God
8
Q
Woodhead, Gilliat-Ray - religious forms of feminism
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W: Women use religion to gain greater freedom and respect, Hijab may be seen as oppressive but is perceived as liberating
G: Young muslim brits use hijab to gain familial & social approval to access FE & employment
9
Q
Brusco
A
Pentecostalism in Colombia is empowering for female members where respect for women is held as a core value.
Protestant denominations like Quakers are committed to equality and have female leaders
10
Q
Durkheim - Religions create and maintain….
A
Value consensus, order and social solidarity
11
Q
Durkheim - Key distinction made by religion
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Sacred - Things revered, set apart and forbidden. Inspire awe, fear and wonder. Surrounded by taboo and prohibition
Profane - No special significance, ordinary and mundane
e.g. a plank vs a crucifix
12
Q
Durkheim - totemism
A
SIMPLEST FORM OF RELIGION. Studied Arunta clan, performed rituals involving totems - a clans emblem which symbolises their origins and identity. Worship of the group itself as well as totem, inspires awe as it reflects the power of the group over them
13
Q
Durkheim - Collective consciousness
A
Sacred symbols represent CC of a society, i.e. reflect its values. They reinforce CC and integrate individuals by reminding us we are part of an all powerful single community to which we owe loyalty due to the support it gives us
14
Q
Malinowski
A
Religion promotes solidarity by alleviating stress. Particularly in situations where an outcome is important but uncertain, or in times of life crisis
15
Q
Mailonwski - Trobriand Islanders
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Lagoon fishing: Safe and predictable, no rituals
Ocean fishing: Dangerous and uncertain, practiced canoe magic.
Religion soothed their anxieties
16
Q
Parsons
A
Religion creates and legitimates society’s central values by sacralising them, gives a sense of meaning by answering ultimate questions
17
Q
Bellah
A
Civil religion - Functional alternative. Treating national symbols and ceremonies as sacred. Worship of a “way of life”. Integrates society in a way religion can’t
18
Q
Mestrovič
A
Durkheim’s perspective is outdated as diversity has fragmented the collective consciousness
19
Q
Marx - opium
A
Religion is the “opium of the people”, one of the forces the bourgeoisie uses to maintain control. It can dull pain and ease tension
20
Q
Lenin
A
Religion is a “spiritual gin” which is used by the ruling class to create a “mystical fog” which obscures reality for the working class
21
Q
Althusser
A
Religion is an ISA which provides compensatory effects, prevents social change and legitimates authority
22
Q
Bloch
A
Religion is an expression of the principle of hope. Has a dual character, ideals of utopia either deceive people as compensation, or create a “heaven on earth” through enacting social change
23
Q
Engels
A
Religion has a dual character. Can challenge the status quo, like liberation from slavery (in Egypt in the Bible), or can uphold the status quo
24
Q
Abercrombie, Hill and Turner
A
Christianity was a major element of pre-capitalist ruling ideology, but its impact on peasantry was limited
25
26
Maduro
Religion can act as a revolutionary force which preaches liberation from misery, oppression and exploitation. Help wc seek change on earth rather than in afterlife
27
Daly
Christianity spreads patriarchal myths - Eve as the source of temptation
28
Weber - Calvinism
The salvation panic caused by predestination and asceticism (abstinence and discipline) caused an emphasis on work which caused the development of capitalism. Known as the Protestant ethic
29
Kautsky
Weber overstates the role of ideas, and understates economic factors in the development of capitalism. Capitalism as a system predates Calvinism
30
Tawney
Technological changes, not religious ideas caused capitalism. Only after capitalism that the bourgeoisie adopted Calvinism to sacralise hard work
31
Bruce - New Christian Right
Religion could be a force for regressive social change
32
Merrimen
Christianity separated the capitalist west from atheistic communist states
33
Perlstein
Southern Democrats brought religious influences to the right-wing after leaving the Democratic Party
34
Casanova
Liberation theology played an important role in resisting state terror and democratising Latin America
35
Pope John Paul II
Heavily disliked Liberation Theology due to links with Marxism, banned LT speakers at Catholic events
36
Lehmann
Pentecostal challenge. Focuses on social mobility within capitalism rather than a revolutionary alternative to capitalism
37
Gramsci
Religion could either be used to manufacture consent - hegemony, or for the development of a working class counter hegemony
38
Troeltsch
Distinguished between churches and sects. As established religions interwoven with the operation of the state opposed to small exclusive groups who are radical critics of society
39
Niebuhr
Denominations are midway between a church and a sect
40
41
Wallis' typology
Categorised NRMs by affinity with outside world.
World-rejecting (similar to sects), World-accommodating (don't accept or reject outside world), World-affirming (similar to cults)
42
Stark and Bainbridge - Sects and Cults
Sects are from schisms in existing organisations and promise otherworldly benefits. Cults are new organisations which promise this worldly benefits and can be subdivided into Audience, Client and Cultic Movements
43
Crockett - secularisation
In 1851, 57-60% attended church on Sundays, based on Census. Declined to 16% in 2014 (of CofE)
44
Woodhead - clergy
In response to the fall in clergy membership, "there are no longer enough troupers to keep the show on the road".
45
Bruce - overall trends of secularisation
In all measures of religiosity (membership, attendance, popularity of rites of passage ceremonies), we find a steady and unremitting decline
46
Weber - rationalisation
Due to the refutation of non-Biblical Catholic ceremony, the Protestant reformation lead to rationalisation (rationality as the driver of society). This brings about disenchantment (explanations are now non-religious)
47
Bruce - Technological worldview
A belief in science&tech has replaced religious explanations. Doesn't challenge religion itself, just the scope of explanations and impact.
48
Parsons - structural differentiation
Institutions are more specialised and carry out separate and specific functions. Religion used to be involved in law, education, welfare - disengagement. Now privatised (home and family) leading to secularisation
49
Bruce - social and cultural diversity
Industrialisation caused the decline of small and close-knit communities and replaced them with urban loose-knit communities. This creates a religious diversity which undermines the plausibility of a belief as no one religion can claim a monopoly in the truth
50
Aldridge
Imagined communities created by the media and diasporas refute the concept that the disruption of small communities cause religious decline
51
Berger
The large number of religious organisations operating cause a crisis in credibility, as the one dominant religion can no longer claim a monopoly over the truth.
52
Bruce - How religions survive?
Religion becomes a focal point for a group identity
Acts as either:
Cultural defence - Protection of a national, group, or ethnic identity
Cultural transition - Provides a sense of community for immigrants before they feel integrated
53
Heelas and Woodhead - Kendal
Found a significant growth in the holistic milieu. Decline in traditional religions but a process of resacralisation (religious renewal), exploration rather than obedience
54
Wilson - USA
45% of Americans attended church on Sundays, argued this was an expression of the American way of life. Religion was not genuine but superficial, ∴ America is secular.
55
Bruce - Evidence of US secularisation
Declining Church attendance
Secularisation from within- Churches remain popular by placing less (religious) demands on their members
Religious diversity - Acceptance of diverse beliefs
56
Hadaway
Church attendance rates are not 40% as reported, as churches would be full and they're not. People lie for social desirability
57
Stark
Golden age of religion never existed. People were indifferent in the middle ages. They behaved inappropriately in church, violently farting, knitting etc
58
Stark and Bainbridge
Religion is always needed. It goes through cycles of secularisation, innovation, revival, renewal and repeats. Society creates new belief systems to fill gaps when existing religions fail
59
Brierly
Findings show secularisation is occidentalist. Islam is growing, Hinduism has remained very popular in India, Christianity increasing in Africa, S.America and Asia
60
Davie -BWB
Religion is no longer ascribed/imposed, a matter of personal choice. Believing without belonging, people rarely attend but believe and turn to religion when they choose to
61
Davie - SHS, Vicarious religion
A small number of regular churchgoers and clergy practise on behalf of a much larger group of people. No attendance, yes identity. Churches are a spiritual health service, use however and whenever needed
62
Voas and Crockett
Criticise Davie as church attendance and belief in God are in concurrent decline. They neither believe nor belong. Supported by British Social attitudes survey
63
Day
Few Christians mentioned God or Christianity, Christian was a stand in for white, English. Belonging was not to religious community but ethnonationalist identity
64
Hervieu-Leger
Cultural amnesia (people forgetting shared traditions&history) has led to spiritual shopping. Religion is now individualised, consumerist - DIY BELIEF.
65
Define pilgrims and converts: Hervieu-Leger
Types of spiritual shoppers
Pilgrims are in search of self discovery: Created by contemporary emphasis on personal development
Converts seek religions with a strong sense of belonging, and seek a sense of identity and community
66
Helland
Religion Online vs Online Religion
Religion online: Traditional religion but digitised. Church disseminates approved ideas.
Online religion: May have no non internet presence. Non-hierarchical relationships and a sense of community through virtual worship
67
Cowan (2005)
Example of online religion
Pagans gain self worth knowing that they belong to a global community through the internet
68
Hoover et al (2004)
Most of the online religious use religion as a supplement to, rather than a substitute for, church activity
69
Lyons - Consumerism
Postmodernism has lead to consumerism, people "pick n mix" elements of religion to suit them. It is part of the sphere of consumption.
70
Lyons - effect of consumerism on trad/new age religions
Variety in religious products leads to a loss of plausibility of religious metanarratives. Harms traditional religions which claim absolute truth. New religions emerged which benefit as the consumer can sample them
71
Lyons - re-enchantment
Critique of secularisation theory. Religious explanations reappearing through the growth of unconventional/NRM beliefs and practises. Religion is not declining, it is changing
72
Bruce - critique of Heelas and Woodhead
Not growing at the same rate needed to fill traditional religious gaps.
No religious heredity (only 32%).
NA Spirituality is a cause of secularisation as it emphasises individualism and lacks an external power to extract committment
73
Glendinning and Bruce
Serious commitment to New Age practises is very rare, "dabbling" is much more common
74
Bellah - Self religion
A system of religious belief which co-opts elements of religions chosen by an individual w/o theological or theoretical consideration.
Example of Sheila, "Sheilaism, just my own little voice"
75
Stark and Bainbridge - Basis of RMT
Based in two assumptions: natural religiosity, innate reward seeking/cost avoidance.
Religion is attractive b/c it offers supernatural rewards when real ones are unobtainable, which other belief systems cannot.
Religion provides us with compensatirs
76
Stark and Bainbridge - RMT, US& Europe
Religion operates on a supply-led relationship. More supply = people will find religion for them. Converse, monopoly = less demand, decline.
USA has never had monopoly and religion thrives, vice versa for europe.
77
Hadden and Shupe
The growth of televangelism demonstrates the level of participation is supply-led. Rise led to competition between evangelical churches offering greater vol of products to choose from
78
Norris and Inglehart - Criticise S&B
Countries with Catholic dominance have high religious participation, this is less so for pluralistic countries which should be more religious due to competition
79
Beckford
Assumption of natural religiosity is unsociological, fails to explain why people choose the way they do
80
Norris and Inglehart - EST
Existential security theory. Poor countries are more religious as they are existentially insecure, high presence of risks to life (e.g. Burundi, 75-94% are religious), rich existentially secure countries have no need 4 religion (e.g Germany 40% are religious)
81
Gill and Lundegaarde
Uruguay has religious diversity and low levels of participation (refutes S&B). Culturally similar to neighbouring countries but has welfare provisions, more existentially secure
82
Voas and Crockett (age)
3 Explanations for older ppl being more religious:
- Ageing effect: People turn to religion due to death (concern with afterlife)
- Generational effect: Religion was more popular when they grew up
- Secularisation: Religion declines in importance so each generation is less religious than last
83
Troeltsch - appeal of sects
Appeal to poor and oppressed due to offer of a theodicy of disprivilege: promise of salvation as a reward for earthly poverty
84
Bruce - Appeal of cults
Generally middle class appeal as they fulfill the needs of the spiritually deprived
85
Bird
Religion among minorities can be a basis of community solidarity and a means of preserving culture and language
86
Herberg
High levels of participation amongst first generation immigrants, this declines over time after they have transitioned into wider society. Evidence for cultural transition
87
Pryce
Afrocarribean religion in Bristol. Pentecostalism is a highly adaptive religion of the oppressed, played a role in cultural transition. Rastafarianism acted as cultural defence, rejecting wider society as racist and exploitative
88
Heelas and Woodhead - Gender and New age
80% of those involved are women. Celebrate self-healing and authenticity rather than enacting traditional gender roles
89
Miller and Hoffman
Women socialised to be passive and caring, seen as religious qualities.
90
Bruce - Gender and religiosity DOES HE EVER SHUT UP
Childbearing makes women less aggressive and more caring, New age appeals to these qualities
91
Davie - Gender and religiosity
Women are more involved in birth, making them more curious about ultimate questions. Women see a God of love and passion, men see a God of power and control
92
Glock and Stark
Deprivation may explain higher membership of sect membership. Women are organismically (health), ethically and socially deprived.
93
Brusco - Paradox
Pentecostal gender paradox. Seen as patriarchal but attractive to women due to attitude of providing for women, rather than machismo attitudes (gambling, prostitution, booze)
94
Giddens
Fundamentalists are traditionalists who want to return to the basics if their faith. Arises where traditional beliefs and values are challenged by postmodernism and globalisation. Anomie or fear thereof
95
Aldrige - Fundamentalist hermeneutics
Fundamentalists interpret texts 100% literally, ignoring interpretations of symbolism and metaphor
96
Hawley - fundamentalism & patriarchy
Fundamentalists favour a world where the reproductive, social and economic rights are controlled
97
Giddens - Alternative to fundamentalism
Cosmopolitanism - Tolerance of all views and modifying beliefs in response to new info. Reflexive thinking
98
Baumann
Globalisation and postmodernity bring risk, through choice and uncertainty. Fundamentalism provides an island of certainty
99
Castells
Responses to postmodernism.
Resistant Identity: Threatened, retreat into fundamentalism
Project identity: Embracing postmodernism and accepting social movements
100
Beckford - critique of Giddens, C&F
Distinguished too sharply between fundamentalism and cosmopolitanism. Hybrid movements which emerge from globalisation ignored.
101
Beckford - critique of Giddens, F
Lumps all types of fundamentalism together. Some have differing behaviours, extremeness, and attitudes
102
Haynes
Islamic fundamentalism is a response to civil conflicts in the middle east, Giddens' theory is too simplistic
103
Bruce - Monotheism and fundamentalism
Monotheistic religions are more likely to produce fundamentalism. They zre based on the idea that God's will is revealed through a single sacred text with rules to follow. Polytheistic religions have more scope for interpretation
104
Bruce - Two types of fundamentalism
Western: Response to diversity and choice and the weakening of traditional religion and its teachings
Developing world: Response to imposition of Western values triggered by globalisation
105
Davie - Secular fundamentalism
A growing mood of uncertainty and pessimism caused by globalisation and its consequences have left secular ideologies fighting for survival. Religious challenges to liberal values provokes secular fundamentalism
106
Ansell
Secular fundamentalism is about preserving 'our way' of life, legitimating the exclusion of minorities, such as the Burqa ban in France
107
Huntingdon
There is a 'clash' between the seven civilisations. They share a common history and culture and gain cohesion from identification with a major religion. Leads to us and them dynamics
108
Casanova - Clash of civilisations
Ignores internal religious differences, such as Sunni and Shi'a, Catholic and Protestant, from which clashes emerge
109
Nanda
Indian mc are prosperous but still religious. Rejects EST and cultural defence. Due to mixed feelings about wealth. Traditional hinduism rejects material wealth, modern legitimates (evidence of hard work)
110
Marx - ideology
Bourgeoisie ideology reinforces class consciousness. Disseminated through superstructure.
- "Equality isn't human nature"
- Poor people are lazy and stupid - meritocracy
- Minorities are inferior, divide and conquer approach
111
Mannheim
Ideologies are all partial or one sided, in the interests of one social class. Two broad types: ideological thought: promotes status quo, rc interests. Utopian thought: vision of a better future. Solution is to detach individuals from social groups, create a free flowing intelligentsia which can arrive at a total world view
112
113
Marks (feminist)
Gender difference is a feature of all societies so there are ideologies to justify them. Women excluded from education in fears of "puny", "unfeminine" women
