Benin Flashcards
(150 cards)
1
Q
Where was the kingdom of Benin located?
A
In a very fertile land (in the region of modern Nigeria and Cameroon) that produced Beni pepper, woven cloth, palm oil, and yams.
2
Q
What was the main trading port of the Kingdom of Benin?
A
Gwaton
3
Q
What geographical features helped protect Benin from invasion?
A
Rainforest and mangrove swamps in the hinterland.
4
Q
What strategic advantage did the Edo have?
A
Control over riverine territories and revenue routes to the outside world
5
Q
What was the capital city of Benin and how far was it from the coast?
A
Edo, located 30km from the coast.
6
Q
When did the Edo kingdom begin and who was the first ruler?
A
Around AD 900, with Chief Igodo taking the title ogiso (ruler of the sky).
7
Q
What spiritual link did the early kings try to establish?
A
A connection with Oludamare to sanction their rule.
8
Q
Name one administrative reform by Oba Ewuare.
A
Introduction of three associations of palace chiefs, which strengthened the administration.
9
Q
Which festivals did Oba Ewuare establish?
A
Ugie Erhe Oba dedicated to the Oba’s sacred
ancestors and Igue which strengthened the Oba’s divine powers
10
Q
How did Oba Ewuare expand Benin?
A
East to Ibo and Ijo, South towards the Ocean
and West towards Lagos Lagoon
11
Q
What other reforms did Oba Ewuare implement?
A
Expanding urban structures, such as road systems in Edo
12
Q
When did the Portuguese establish a trading post at Gwaton?
A
By 1490
13
Q
Which Portuguese emissary visited Edo in 1485/6?
A
Joao Afonso d’Aveiro.
14
Q
Give an example of strong trade relations between Benin and Portugal under Ozolua.
A
Beni pepper was traded in Flanders spice markets.
15
Q
Give example of strong political relations between Benin and Portugal under Ozolua.
A
The chief of Gwaton, a leading offical
under Oba Ozolua, was welcomed into the
Court in Portugal to discuss trade. Portuguese supported Oba Ozolua in military campaigns.
16
Q
What did the Portuguese fail to achieve with Oba Ozolua?
A
His baptism in exchange for firearms.
17
Q
Who was the first accredited African envoy to the Portuguese court?
A
Esigie’s son.
18
Q
What were key Portuguese imports into Benin under Esigie?
A
Coral beads, ceremonial cloths, and brass manilas (used for casting).
19
Q
What did Benin export to the Portuguese?
A
Pepper, tobacco, spices, colanuts, ivory, earthenware, jewellery, artefacts, and woven cotton materials
20
Q
How did Esigie respond to Portuguese interest in the slave trade?
A
He allowed it, trading prisoners of war from Ozolua’s campaigns.
21
Q
What event followed the 1514 embassy to Lisbon? (Esigie)
A
In 1515, Portuguese military assisted Benin, likely against the Igala in the Okipo Wars.
22
Q
What religious concessions did Esigie make to the Portuguese?
A
Allowed Christian clergy to teach Portuguese and convert locals; three Catholic churches were built before 1500.
23
Q
How did Esigie achieve military success? (Evidence of weak relationship with Europeans)
A
By expanding Benin’s frontiers without relying on European arms, defeating Igala and moving toward Lagos
24
Q
What happened in 1539 when the Portuguese sent missionaries to Benin?
A
The missionaries gave up, reporting the king had no intention of converting.
25
Why was Christianity never fully embraced in Benin?
The spiritual authority of Ife-Ife was too deeply connected to the oba's political power.
26
How did the nature of trade between Benin and the Portuguese change over time?
It shifted from a diverse trade (ivory, redwood, oil, gum, slaves) to one focused almost entirely on enslaved persons.
27
What important goods and technologies entered Benin via Gwaton?
Guns, iron bars (from Holland), manilas (used for bronze casting), and cowrie shells (used as currency).
28
What item became a major export from Benin's trade routes?
Woven cloth, supplied by Ijebu towns en route to Ikorodu.
29
What were the three classes of palace chiefs (introduced by Ewuare)?
Chamberlains (iwebo) – in charge of regalia of state including throne and
ceremonial wardrobe
Household officers (iwegune) – looked after private apartments and arranged
private audiences
Attendants of the king’s family (ibiwe) – looked after the oba’s wives and
children and settled disputes between them
30
What key form of currency was used in early Benin-European trade?
Copper armrings, known as manilas.
31
How much did an enslaved person cost in 1506 and by 1517, what had the price risen to?
15 manilas of copper to 57.
32
When did cowries begin to be widely used in Benin?
From the 1520s, as imports through Portuguese traders increased.
33
How did the price of an enslaved captive (paid in cowries) change from 1522 to 1527?
It rose by 15%.
34
How much did the cowrie price for a load of yams increase between 1522 and 1527?
From 8,000 cowries to 89,000.
35
What did the growing currency base enable for the Benin state?
Collection of tolls and taxes, expansion of state infrastructure, financing of a growing army
36
How did increased currency circulation affect everyday life?
It allowed markets to thrive, encouraging people to spend more freely.
37
What was a major benefit of increased iron availability in Benin?
It was transformed into agricultural tools for clearing and managing land.
38
What economic problem emerged in Benin in the later 17th century?
Serious inflation due to pressures on the cowrie currency.
39
What caused the decline in Benin's cowrie currency supply?
European (especially Dutch) traders lost interest in Benin's cloth trade, shifting focus to slavery.
40
When did iron begin replacing brass and copper manilas as currency?
In the 1630s.
41
Why was the timing of increased iron supply significant?
It coincided with the rise of the slave trade, increasing demand for food production.
42
Why were Obas unwilling to sell male slaves?
Men were seen as vital for warfare and were already considered "slaves of the king."
43
What trade policy did Benin enforce between 1530 and 1700?
A total embargo on the sale of male slaves; instead, Benin focused on cloth production.
44
When did Benin establish separate slave markets by gender?
As early as 1516, with separate markets for male and female slaves.
45
What system did Esigie introduce to protect Edo people?
Skin markings to identify Edo people and protect them from being enslaved.
46
What was the Ezomo’s stance on selling slaves?
He refused to sell any, even though he may have owned up to 10,000 slaves by the late 18th century.
47
Where did the Portuguese shift their slave trade focus after Benin's restrictions?
To peripheral regions, especially around the Niger Delta and western Igbo areas.
48
How many slaves were exported from West Africa per year by 1600 and 1750?
10,000 by 1600; 100,000 by 1750.
49
Where did the bulk of Benin’s slaves come from?
From Akure, Ishan, and Urhobo.
50
Why were wars fought in eastern Yorubaland?
To capture slaves for trade.
51
What is meant by “Benin proper”?
The central core of the Benin Kingdom, especially around the capital city Edo, ruled directly by the oba (king), as opposed to the wider Benin state, which included distant tributary regions with local autonomy.
52
How did Benin manage distant regions in its empire?
Through a tribute system, where local communities retained autonomy but had to pay dues to the oba.
53
How did European traders often interact with West African states like Benin?
They frequently bypassed the oba and dealt directly with local communities, especially riverine towns involved in independent trading.
54
By 1726, what items were commonly traded for slaves at the Gwaton port?
Firearms and smoked fish, in exchange for prisoners of war or criminals.
55
What goods remained stable exports from Benin proper, despite the rise of the slave trade?
Ivory, pepper, and later palm oil.
56
What did towns and tributaries do as they became richer from the slave trade?
Many refused to pay tribute, and some even raided Benin’s territory using newly acquired firearms.
57
What key administrative reform did Oba Ewuare introduce to ensure royal succession?
He created the title of edaiken (crown prince) for his eldest son.
58
What were the main effects of Ewuare’s purification laws after the deaths of his sons?
They caused desertion and migration of Edo people due to harsh bans on celebration, bathing, dance, and sex.
59
How did Oba Ewuare structure the Benin government?
He created the State Council, divided Benin into departments governed by chiefs, and formed a patrimonial bureaucracy.
60
What did the State Council (created by Ewuare) consist of?
It consisted of three distinct groups:
* The chiefs of the major towns - the eghaevo n’ore
* The palace chiefs, whose titles were created by the oba - the eghaevo n’ogbe
* The uzama – the 6 hereditary chiefs whose duty was to install each new oba
61
How did Ewuare enhance the religious legitimacy of the monarchy?
Through traditional Edo medicine, rituals, and the symbolic use of coral and red flannel cloth.
62
What was Oba Ewuare’s major military achievement?
Capturing 201 towns and villages, expanding Benin east to the Niger and west to Lagos lagoon
63
What role did Oba Ozolua play in succession traditions?
He reintroduced primogeniture and appointed dukedoms to his other sons.
64
What was Oba Ozolua's attitude towards Portuguese religion and trade?
He rejected Christianity but valued guns and political ties, arranging for a Portuguese tutor for his son.
65
What nickname did Oba Ozolua earn, and why?
Ozolua n’Ibarmia (“Ozolua the Conqueror”) for fighting over 200 successful battles. It was from his reign that Benin obas began to add the title: Nokhua or Akpolokpolo (Emperor) to their names.
66
How did Oba Esigie manage relations with the Portuguese?
He welcomed merchants and missionaries but regulated trade through a guild system of commercial traders. He also took Portuguese mercenaries to war in struggles that ultimately strengthened the kingdom and consolidated its power under the oba.
67
Who was Idia and what role did she play under Esigie?
Esigie’s mother, a powerful military and political figure, first to hold the title of iyoba (queen mother). She created protective and strengthening medicines for his soldiers and actively commanded her own army in battle. She was a noted administrator and a great Amazon (warrior), personally involved in many of the wars of conquest by the oba and even led some of them herself.
68
What cultural contribution did Esigie make to Benin art?
He commissioned the first palace plaques and encouraged refined brass casting.
69
What failure did Esigie face in consolidating support from Udo?
Despite defeating Udo’s forces, the people resisted and fled to establish Ondo, weakening central unity.
70
Who primarily practiced art in Benin during the reign of Oba Ewuare and beyond?
Hereditary palace craftsmen who specialized in brass casting, wood, and ivory carving.
71
What were the brass and ivory heads created by Benin artists used for?
They honored deceased obas and were displayed in funeral ceremonies and royal shrines.
72
What was Orhogbua’s most significant military achievement?
Conquering coastal lands up to Lagos and establishing a permanent garrison there.
73
What name did Orhogbua give to the island of Lagos and what does it mean?
Eko, meaning “camp”.
74
What major trade commodity did Orhogbua’s lagoon expedition introduce to Benin?
Common salt (umwen), replacing traditional Benin salt (odoo).
75
How did Orhogbua reinforce military and trade power between Benin and Europe?
He maintained strong ties with Portugal, including military training and use of firearms.
76
Where did Oba Ehengbuda focus most of his military campaigns?
On land, in the Yoruba areas such as Akure.
77
Who became the de facto leader of Edo military campaigns after Ehengbuda’s injury?
Chief Ekpenede, the Iyase.
78
What treaty did Chief Ekpenede secure, and what did it define?
A treaty with the Are Ona Kakamfo of Oyo, defining boundaries in Yoruba territory at Otun.
79
Why was Chief Ekpenede exiled from the royal city?
To prevent him from gaining too much power and potentially staging a coup.
80
Name three manifestations of the Oba’s supreme power in Benin.
Sumptuary laws controlling dress and access, ritual power over life and death, Edo inhabitants viewed themselves as slaves to the Oba
81
What physical feature separated the Oba from his people and symbolized sacred status?
A formidable wall and avenue separated the Oba’s palace from the rest of Edo.
82
What was the Igue festival?
An annual festival reinforcing the Oba’s spiritual power and divine connection
83
What happened during the Ague-Oghene festival?
The Oba and chiefs fasted, abstained from worldly pleasures, and wore symbolic badges (umanague), showing self-denial and spiritual purity.
84
What was Ugie Erha Oba?
A festival dedicated to the Oba’s sacred ancestors, reinforcing ancestral legitimacy.
85
What was the significance of the New Yam Festival?
Celebrated harvests and fertility; yams were offered to ancestors, gods, and spirits, sometimes involving human sacrifices.
86
What was the significance of the Oba appearing during festivals?
It was the only time people saw the Oba; thousands gathered, reinforcing his majesty and political power.
87
What role did rituals play in state religion?
Human sacrifices and offerings linked the Oba with the ancestors and gods, showing his control over spiritual forces.
88
What was the function of the “Pot of Life”?
A medicine pot filled with charms for protection, health, and wealth; part of Ewuare’s spiritual defense system.
89
What types of tribute were sent to the Oba?
Food, labour, slaves, and goods (e.g. cowries), collected biannually from villages.
90
What symbolic item did new Obas send to vassals?
Chalk, as a token of authority—refusal signified rebellion.
91
How was tribute collection organized?
Through village heads (Odiunwere) and councils, with oversight from palace officials (Iwebo, Iwegune, Ibiwe). Military expeditions were launched if villages refused tribute; governors (Bale-Kale) monitored compliance.
92
What limitation did the tribute system have on Oba’s power?
It allowed palace officials to gain wealth and influence, sometimes challenging royal authority.
93
What did the burial ritual of a deceased Oba reportedly involve?
Loyal followers were buried alive with the Oba in a mausoleum to accompany him to the afterlife.
94
What was the Ebo n’Edo shrine?
The central palace shrine where Edo gods, including deities like Ora and Uwen, were worshipped together.
95
Why was tribute important to the Oba?
It maintained imperial control, provided wealth, and reinforced the Oba’s supremacy over vassals.
96
How did tribute reduce royal household tensions?
Quarrelsome sons and brothers were sent to govern distant provinces, keeping them away from court conflicts.
97
What bronze casting technique was used in Benin?
The lost-wax method, involving a clay model, wax detailing, a clay mould, and molten bronze replacing the ‘lost’ wax.
98
Why was the Igun Eronmwon guild especially important in Benin?
It was the highest-ranking craft guild, reflecting the cultural and political importance of bronze casting.
99
How did Oba Ewuare and Oba Esigie contribute to Benin’s art?
Ewuare supported craft guilds; Esigie commissioned advanced metal art, including the Queen Mother Idia busts.
100
What kind of symbolism was common in Benin bronzes?
Leopards’ teeth necklaces, horses, royal slaves, and Portuguese figures symbolized power and evolving identity.
101
What was the significance of the Benin bronzes?
They historicized each oba’s reign, depicted foreign trade, and emphasized militarized strength and royal authority.
102
How did Obas maintain control over bronze production?
Casters were sequestered in the palace and directed to produce works that reinforced royal history and ideology.
103
What evidence in bronzes suggests links to global trade?
Depictions of books, umbrellas, and cowrie-studded helmets signified external influence and currency use.
104
What was the political consequence of Esigie’s Christian leanings?
Conflict with the traditional uzama nobles led to the creation of a rival uzama, escalating into civil war.
105
What role did Christian symbols play in palace ritual during Esigie's reign?
Christian crosses of four equal arms appeared on royal regalia; mass was introduced into palace routines, blending with local practices.
106
How did Esigie's reign so intensification in promotion of Christianity?
He built a cathedral on the Aruosa site at Akpakpava Road and chapels at Erie, Ugbague, and Ogbelaka quarters.
107
What happened to Christianity after Esigie’s reign?
Though promoted during his rule, Christianity remained a minority court religion and was largely abandoned by his successor Orhogbua.
108
Who was Olokun in Benin belief?
Olokun was the most important deity in Benin, associated with wealth, fertility, childbirth, and guiding the dead to the spiritual world.
109
How did Olokun strengthen the Oba’s power?
The Oba was seen as the partial reincarnation of Olokun, giving him divine legitimacy and helping suppress rebellion from chiefs.
110
What did Ewuare do to honor Olokun?
Ewuare rebuilt Olokun temples in Gwaton and Edo, and was believed to have received coral regalia directly from Olokun.
111
What was the symbolism behind coral beads in Benin?
Coral beads came from Olokun’s palace and symbolized royal authority; only the Oba could grant or revoke the right to wear them.
112
How did the Olokun cult help the Oba control the chiefs?
The Oba granted regalia associated with Olokun and could withdraw them, demonstrating his dominance over the chiefs.
113
What economic power did the Oba gain from the Olokun cult?
The Oba’s palace merged with the Olokun cult to control trade and wealth through markets and offerings.
114
What was the Oba's role in the military?
Supreme Military Commander.
115
What titles made up the army high command?
Oba, Iyase (General Commander), Ezomo (Senior War Commander), Edogun (Royal Regiment Commander).
116
What major change occurred in the role of the Iyase under Ehengbuda?
He could no longer reside in the Ogbe quarter or return to Edo after conquests, weakening his power.
117
What was the Ezomo responsible for?
Commanding the metropolitan regiment and leading national campaigns.
118
What weapons did Benin warriors use?
Swords (umozo), spears (asoro), assegais, crossbows, bows and poisoned arrows.
119
What defensive structure did Ewuare build in the capital?
A moat with nine gates around Edo for protection and control.
120
How did the army function in relation to the villages?
Regiments were village-based and mobilised by the Oba; no standing army existed
121
What caused the Oba to lose military command in the 17th century?
Civil war, succession disputes, and increasing power of the chiefs. Iyase Ogina’s Revolt against Oba Ohuan, after Oba Ehengbuda, no Oba led military campaigns from c.1606 to c.1750.
122
What military reforms were made by Oba Akenzua I?
Creation of new military titles to balance power and reassert royal control.
123
What were the key C18 military campaigns?
Suppression of revolts in Agbor, Ubulu-Uku, and Ugo.
124
What factors contributed to Benin's strong military organization?
Iron smelting enabled varied weaponry; army organized into divisions of swordsmen, archers, spearmen, and crossbowmen.
125
What types of weapons were used by Benin warriors?
Bows with poisoned arrows, curved swords (umozo), two types of spears (asoro), assegais, and crossbows.
126
How large was the Oba's army according to Dutch sources?
He could mobilize 20,000 soldiers in a day, with a total army of 80,000–100,000 men.
127
Why didn’t Benin adopt firearms in the 16th century despite Portuguese contact?
Papal bans on selling arms to non-Christians were enforced by Portuguese traders.
128
What was the significance of firearms in the 18th century?
805 types of guns were imported (1757–1806); firearms became more common in slave raids and warfare.
129
How did trade with Europeans affect military power?
Chiefs gained power by controlling trade routes, weakening the Oba’s authority.
130
Who were the two main opposing figures in the Benin civil war?
Oba Ewuakpe and Iyase Ode.
131
What condition was Benin in by the late 17th century?
Benin was in decline, with a reduced population, ruined buildings, and disrupted trade due to civil war.
132
When did the civil war in Benin occur?
Late 1600s to early 1700s, especially around c.1700–1730s.
133
Who was Ode and what was his role?
Ode was the iyase (chief minister) who led a powerful rebellion against Oba Ewuakpe and sacked the city.
134
How did European trade, especially ivory, increase instability in Benin?
Ode used profits from ivory trade to fund his revolt, and shifts in trade patterns weakened royal control.
135
What happened after Ewuakpe's death?
His second son Ozuere, backed by Iyase Ode, usurped the throne, violating primogeniture and sparking renewed conflict.
136
How did Akenzua I secure his position as Oba?
He allied with the ezomo, defeated Iyase Ode, and restored the principle of primogeniture.
137
What structural change occurred in Benin after the civil war?
Power became more diffused; the monarchy lost some central authority to aristocratic and mercantile groups.
138
What long-term impact did the civil wars have on the Kingdom of Benin?
Loss of royal centralisation, new political structure, and shifting trade that weakened royal control.
139
What sparked the civil war during Oba Ewuakpe’s reign?
Ewuakpe’s unpopular rule, excessive sacrifices, failure to perform ancestral rites, and resistance from chiefs and commoners.
140
Why did royal succession become unstable after Oba Ohuan’s death (c. 1608)?
Ohuan died without a son or brother, breaking the direct royal line from Oranmiyan. Succession opened to remote royal family branches, weakening legitimacy.
141
How was the royal line perceived after Ohuan?
Obas after Ohuan were seen as not divinely ordained due to their distant lineage, creating a crisis of legitimacy.
142
What pattern emerged in C17 reigns?
Many kings had short reigns marked by rebellions, deposition (e.g., Ahenkpaye), or scandal (e.g., Ahenzae gambling away royal beads).
143
What symbolic violations occurred during some reigns?
One king (Akengboi) was possessed by a deity (Olokun), and another (Ohuan) was magically transformed from female to male—violating royal norms
144
What laws did Ehengbuda pass that empowered officials?
He forbade killing the Uwangue and banned the oba from leading military expeditions—delegating power to officials like the iyase.
145
What commodities did the oba traditionally control?
Slaves, ivory, pepper, and gum.
146
What product replaced these exports (which were under obas' control), and why was that significant?
Cloth became dominant. It was widely produced and not monopolized by the oba, redistributing wealth and power.
147
How did trade shift from palace to local control?
By the C17, trade was conducted in riverside villages by local bureaucrats in the oba’s name—not by the oba himself.
148
How did European imports affect Benin’s cloth trade?
Dutch and English flooded the market with cheap cloths from Flanders and India, undercutting Benin’s handmade cloth.
149
When did the Dutch cloth trade collapse in Benin, and why?
By 1685, due to overstocking and low demand for Benin cloths.
150
Which neighboring kingdom rose as Benin declined?
Oyo, a powerful savannah state.
