Kongo Flashcards
(144 cards)
1
Q
When and how was the Kingdom of Kongo founded?
A
Around 1390 CE through a political marriage between Nima a Nzima (Mpemba Kasi) and Lukeni lua Nsanze (Mbata), uniting two KiKongo-speaking peoples.
2
Q
How did the Kingdom of Kongo expand during the 16th century?
A
Through annexation of regions like Ndongo, Matamba, and other Kimbundu-speaking areas, many of which remained mostly independent but paid occasional tribute.
3
Q
What was the maximum size and population of the Kingdom of Kongo?
A
300,000 sq km with 2–3 million subjects.
4
Q
How did the Kongo Kingdom grow initially?
A
Through migration of nine related clans who expanded northeast to Nsundi and Mpangu, east to Mbata, and west to Soyo and Mbamba.
5
Q
How did Kongo settlers interact with local Mbundu populations?
A
They married local women and recognised the authority of Mbundu chiefs.
6
Q
How did geography contribute to Kongo’s rise?
A
Key provinces lay near trade routes and resources; Mbanza Kongo developed due to Portuguese influence and its central location, while other provinces like Nsundi and Mbamba controlled borders and resources.
7
Q
What was Mpemba’s significance?
A
Central province with the capital Mbanza Kongo, personally ruled by the manikongo. Developed into a stone city with Portuguese help and had 10,000 households by 1595.
8
Q
Why was Nsundi important?
A
Military and commercial hub with iron mines; defended against the Teke and annexed new territories, giving power to senior royal officials.
9
Q
What made Mbamba significant?
A
Gained Luanda by 1500, increasing control over Nzimbu shells, becoming the richest and largest province.
10
Q
Why was Mbata the most powerful province?
A
It joined the kingdom voluntarily and had rulers from its own royal line chosen by the manikongo. Acted as a buffer state and was respected by Europeans.
11
Q
What was Soyo’s role and how did it change?
A
Initially under manikongo’s relatives, it grew powerful through trade and partial independence by 1620s. Rich in resources and had three yearly harvests.
12
Q
How was Mpangu established?
A
As an early province acquired through conquest.
13
Q
What characterized Ndongo and Matamba?
A
Independent but raided and taxed by Kongo. Matamba had iron and salt; Ndongo had cattle due to its fertile valleys and dry seasons.
14
Q
What does the word “kanda” refer to in Kongo society?
A
A lineage or group of people who claim descent from a common ancestor.
15
Q
How did the kanda system contribute to the rise of the Kongo Kingdom?
A
Kanda expanded power through migration and marriage alliances, helping form the kingdom and organize tribute collection through labor.
16
Q
How was descent typically traced in the kanda system?
A
Descent was mainly matrilineal; sons would live with their mother’s brother
17
Q
What role did the kanda system play in political organization?
A
It underpinned labor, tribute, and expansion, especially in the central Kikongo-speaking region where 12 kanda evolved into a ruling group.
18
Q
What was the Mwissikongo?
A
The council of 12 ruling kanda, forming the king’s political advisory body with presumed perpetuity and closed membership.
19
Q
How was the Mwissikongo structured?
A
12 members divided into 3 groups; 4 were women, often female kanda chiefs from key lineages of the manikongo
20
Q
What powers did the Mwissikongo have?
A
They could elect the manikongo, manage government affairs, exploit regions, and organise policies.
21
Q
How did marriage tie the manikongo to the kanda?
A
Each kanda provided a wife, making all kandas metaphorical ‘children’ of the manikongo.
22
Q
How did European contact in the early 16th century affect the Mwissikongo?
A
It weakened traditional kanda dependency by enabling wealth from the slave trade.
23
Q
How was slave labor used in the Kingdom of Kongo?
A
Slaves worked as messengers, soldiers, traders, concubines, and agricultural laborers.
24
Q
By the mid-17th century, what proportion of the Kongo population were slaves?
A
About half of the population.
25
What military power did the manikongo have in the late 16th century?
A personal guard of 16,000–20,000 Tio slaves, commanded by 4 Mwissikongo titleholders.
26
How did this military shift affect the role of the kanda?
The Mwissikongo became partially independent of the kanda for military and food production.
27
When did the Mwissikongo adopt Christianity?
Early 16th century.
28
What Portuguese names were adopted by the royal family?
The king, queen, and prince became Joao, Eleanor, and Afonso.
29
Why did other nobles adopt Portuguese family names like Castro and Silva?
To associate with Christian religion and to prove Mwissikongo status and access new trade wealth.
30
What was the title of the manikongo’s female chief?
Mani nzimbu mpungu, the "Mother" of the manikongo.
31
What natural resources did the Kingdom of Kongo exploit?
Palm trees (used to produce oil and palm wine), peppers, bananas, yams, and cola nuts. Millet was the most important type of grain.
32
What status did blacksmiths hold in Kongo?
Blacksmiths had royal and aristocratic privilege; ironwork was highly valued.
33
What did blacksmiths produce?
Weapons for defense and expansion, and tools for farming and forestry.
34
What other crafts were practiced in Kongo?
Pottery, wood carving, hide curing, basket making, and weaving.
35
What was the significance of the trade fair at Malebo Pool?
It was a major trading site, especially for copper and slaves in the 16th century.
36
What port did the Kongo slave trade operate from?
Mpinda in the province of Soyo.
37
Where were Kongo slaves sent?
To Portuguese sugar plantations on Sao Tome.
38
What characterized the village economy (vata) in rural Kongo?
Land was communally owned, and harvests were divided among households.
39
How were goods managed in the village economy?
Households regulated the production and distribution of all goods.
40
What was the economic foundation of towns like Mbanza Kongo?
Largely self-sufficient, supported by surrounding slave-worked plantations.
41
What did rural areas provide to towns annually?
A surplus in the form of taxes—typically iron, copper, salt, wild animal products, cloth, and slaves.
42
Who was the first Portuguese navigator to contact Kongo, and when?
Diogo Cão in 1482.
43
What did Diogo Cão do during his visits in 1482 and 1485-86?
He reached the Congo estuary, visited Mbanza Kongo, and took Kongo emissaries to Lisbon. They were baptized and placed in a monastery to learn Western ways.
44
What did Joao II of Portugal send to Kongo in 1490?
A 'missionary expedition' to reshape Kongo society in a European image.
45
What did the Portuguese fleet sent in 1490-91 include?
Three caravels with masons and carpenters (to introduce new tech and build churches), soldiers, missionaries, domestic animals, European goods, and a printing press with two German printers.
46
Who was the manikongo at the time of Portuguese contact?
Nzinga a Nkuwu.
47
When was Nzinga a Nkuwu baptized, and under what name?
3 May 1491, baptised as João.
48
Who else was baptized in 1491?
The chief of Soyo, five other chiefs (including Mbata), the queen (as Eleanor), and Nzinga Mbemba (as Afonso).
49
How did Portuguese soldiers help the Kingdom of Kongo militarily?
They helped defeat Teke raiders in Nsundi using firearms, capturing many POWs.
50
What did Portugal provide that reinforced Kongo’s central authority?
Material support, spiritual legitimacy, and technological superiority.
51
What was the significance of the banner with the cross given to João?
It justified holy war (crusade) and emphasized the spiritual power of the new faith.
52
Who was the Kongo bishop from 1518–1531?
Henrique, son of Afonso I.
53
What religious order helped spread Catholicism in Kongo from 1509–1532?
The Canons of Saint Eloi.
54
What did Afonso I and his son achieve regarding religion in Kongo?
They created a distinctive African-Catholic blend of spirituality, reaching from the capital to rural villages.
55
What major religious oath did Afonso I take in 1513?
An oath of obedience to the Pope.
56
What educational measure had Afonso implemented by 1509?
He had built schools for 400 pupils.
57
What religious tax did Afonso establish?
A tithe to support religion and education
58
How did Diogo I view Christianity?
As a tool for political and economic power, not genuine faith.
59
What happened to missionary activity under Diogo I?
It was restricted after 1549, and Europeans were banned after 1555 due to conflicts.
60
Which king tried to remove Diogo from power, and why?
King João III of Portugal, after advice from the Jesuits due to Diogo’s resistance.
61
What were Alvaro I’s shifting policies toward Portugal?
He sometimes cooperated but also resisted Portuguese influence and sought new allies in Europe.
62
What group emerged from Portuguese traders and local women?
The Luso-African bourgeoisie—a nominally Christian mercantile class
63
What international contacts did Alvaro pursue?
He sent embassies to Portugal, Spain, and the Pope, requesting missionaries and aid.
64
How was the Kongo Church structured by the late 16th century?
Still served by European missionaries but also included native clergy and literate bureaucrats in the capita
65
What actions demonstrated the kings’ formal loyalty to Christianity?
They wrote to the Pope, requested missionaries and marital dispensations, and even sought divine help against locust invasions.
66
How were key Christian terms adapted in Kongo?
They used Kikongo words drawn from Kongo cosmology: Nzambi Mpungu for God, nkisi for “holy,” and moyo for spirit or soul.
67
How were objects like the Bible and churches described in Kikongo terms?
The Bible was called nkanda wakisi (holy book or charm in book form) and a church was termed nzo wakisi (holy house or charm in the form of a house).
68
What term was used for Christian priests in Kongo, and what roles did they adopt?
They were called nganga, taking on traditional roles such as healing, witch-finding, and other spiritual functions while discouraging visits to traditional nganga.
69
How did Christian priests integrate and adapt traditional Kongo practices?
They organized religious processions to request divine intervention, following longstanding local customs.
They replaced traditional magic symbols (used to ward off thieves) in fields with Christian ones.
70
What was the kimpasi, and how did it relate to Christian ideas?
The kimpasi was a special initiation used during crises (like famines), involving the death and resurrection of young initiates—paralleling the Christian narrative of Christ’s death and resurrection.
71
How were local deities and ancestral veneration integrated into the Christian framework in Kongo?
Local territorial deities were incorporated as Catholic saints, and ancestors were given special reverence—evident in the dedication of All Hallows’ Eve (Halloween) to them, with ancestral vigils and prayers.
72
What benefits did the ruling group see in aligning with Rome?
They gained diplomatic leverage, as recognizing Rome’s religious supremacy did not cost them sovereignty. Their allegiance helped secure a Papal denunciation of the Portuguese invasion of southern Kongo in 1622
73
How were the Portuguese initially perceived by the Kongo people?
They were welcomed as ancestors from the North and spirits of the water from the South.
74
What does the Kongo cross symbolise?
It represents the cyclical nature of the natural world
75
What role did Catholicism play after the fall of Kongo?
It became a driving force for popular movements aiming to restore the kingdom, with faith in the Holy Trinity and saints guiding the common people.
76
What was Antonianism, and who led it?
A religious movement led by Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita that believed Saint Anthony was Kongo’s saviour and called for a revival of the kingdom through an Africanised form of Catholicism.
77
What unique vision did Dona Beatriz promote?
She claimed Jesus was born in Mbanza Kongo, baptized in Nsundi, and that Mary’s mother was a Kongolese slave—creating a Kongolese Holy Family
78
What happened to Dona Beatriz and her movement?
She was captured and burned as a heretic in 1706 by King Pedro II, under pressure from Capuchin missionaries
79
What was the 1512 Regimento?
An agreement between Afonso I and King Manuel of Portugal granting trade and legal privileges to Portuguese, and Kongo supplying slaves in return for missionaries and craftsmen.
80
What were some of Afonso I’s achievements in domestic policy?
He built schools and roads, developed administration, expanded the capital with Portuguese masons, and extended Kongo’s influence south and east.
81
How did Afonso try to regulate the slave trade?
In 1526, he issued decrees to regulate slavery, protested the enslavement of freeborn Kongolese, and threatened to expel Portuguese merchants who violated laws.
82
What shift did Afonso make in the 1530s regarding the slave trade?
He allowed Portugal to purchase slaves from Kongolese nobles but imposed taxes and transport regulations, and by the late 1520s resumed support for state-controlled slave trade.
83
What Christian object did Diogo I wear around his neck and why was it significant?
Papal indulgences tied in a silk cloth bag (Santissimo Sacramento); it reflected the integration of Christian relics with indigenous beliefs in protective talismans.
84
Which regions did Diogo I authorize Catholic priests to visit to spread Christianity?
Matamba (to the south) and possibly Loango (to the north).
85
What currency did Diogo I mandate to control trade with the Portuguese?
Nzimbu shells.
86
Why did Diogo I’s nzimbu currency system weaken?
Increased trade between Portugal and Kongo’s northern neighbor Tio allowed Europeans to bypass Kongo’s control.
87
What conflict did Diogo I launch in 1556, and what was the result?
A war against Ndongo; Kongo suffered defeat, and in 1557 Portugal formally recognized Ndongo diplomatically.
88
What shift in power occurred under Diogo I due to his use of elite slaves?
Elite slaves answered directly to the king, weakening the authority of traditional nobles.
89
What happened during the Jaga invasion of 1568?
Alvaro’s army was defeated, Mbanza Kongo was sacked, and many civilians and soldiers were killed.
90
Who led the Portuguese forces that defeated the Jaga, and when?
Francisco de Gouveia Sottomaio led about 600 soldiers to defeat the Jaga between 1571 and 1573.
91
What did Alvaro rename Mbanza Kongo upon his return?
Sao Salvador.
92
What economic threat did the Portuguese colony of Angola, founded in 1575, pose to Kongo?
Luanda became an alternative slave export point outside Alvaro’s control.
93
What new economic opportunity benefited Kongo under Alvaro?
Increased demand for raffia cloth created a new market and revenue source.
94
What military reform did Alvaro implement after defeating the Jaga?
He created a regiment of musketeers, mostly of Portuguese or Luso-African descent.
95
How did Alvaro reduce his dependence on the aristocracy?
He promoted slaves to key government positions and married multiple slave wives to form his own household.
96
What did Alvaro offer Portugal, leading to future conflicts?
Control of mines in Kongo (despite there being no major sources of silver).
97
What major religious development occurred under Álvaro II’s reign in 1596?
Sao Salvador was officially recognized as the capital of the diocese of Kongo and Angola, and the first bishop was appointed.
98
Why did conflict arise between Álvaro II and the Church after the bishop’s appointment?
Because the Portuguese kings, claiming the right of Padroado (patronage), appointed their own bishop, leading to power struggles with the king.
99
Why did the Portuguese governor João Correia de Sousa invade Kongo in 1622?
He claimed the right to choose the king and accused Pedro of harbouring runaway slaves.
100
What happened at the Battle of Mbumbi?
Portuguese and Imbangala forces killed the Duke of Mbamba and Marquis of Mpemba.
101
How did Pedro II respond to the Portuguese invasion?
Defeated the Portuguese at Mbanda Kasi and expelled them from Kongo.
102
What were the consequences of Pedro II’s protests to Rome and Spain?
João Correia de Sousa was recalled; 1,200 Kongolese slaves were returned from Brazil.
103
What was Garcia II’s stance on religion and foreign missionaries?
Supported Capuchin friars (non-Portuguese, neutral) and sent ambassadors to the Pope.
104
What was Garcia II’s involvement in the Dutch-Portuguese conflict?
Honoured the Dutch-Kongo alliance and supported Dutch capture of Luanda in 1641.
105
What treaty did Garcia II refuse to sign in 1649?
Treaty surrendering land south of the Bengo River and granting Portugal crown rights to all mines.
106
How did Garcia II maintain power against rival families?
Formed a royal council, arranged marriages, removed rivals from office.
107
How did Garcia II respond to indigenous religious movements?
Suppressed groups like the Kimpasi and punished those responsible for killing Capuchin priest Joris Van Gheel.
108
How did Diogo I show concern about Portuguese influence in Kongo?
In 1546, he sent Diogo Gomes to Europe to renew the 1517 treaty, limit Portuguese trade to Mpinda, and establish direct relations with the Holy See.
109
Who were the Jaga and what role did they play in the 1556 war?
The Jaga were likely the Yaka, former slave-raid victims who allied with the Mbundu of Ndongo to invade Kongo after Afonso's death.
110
What was the immediate impact of the Jaga invasion on Kongo?
It devastated eastern provinces, led to the sacking of Mbanza Kongo in 1569, and forced Alvaro I to flee and request Portuguese military aid.
111
What role did Portugal play in Alvaro I regaining his throne?
In 1571, Portugal sent 600 soldiers, and by 1574 helped Alvaro I reclaim his kingdom from the Jaga. This led to Alvaro's increased submission to Portugal.
112
How did Alvaro II attempt to resist Portuguese control?
He protested Angolan encroachments, established a bishopric and cathedral at São Salvador, and tried to develop direct ties with the Holy See.
113
What challenges did Alvaro II and his successors face after 1614?
Continued Portuguese pressure, failure to fully break ties, and political instability—eight kings ruled between 1614–1641, some very young and short-lived.
114
What two commodities did Dutch merchants primarily trade in when they arrived in Central Africa in the 16th century?
Ivory and copper.
115
What event in early 1622 triggered the First Luso-Kongolese War?
Governor João Correia de Sousa’s attack on Kazanze, accusing it of harboring rebels and illegal traders.
116
Which two Kongo vassals were implicated in supporting Kazanze, leading to the war?
The Duke of Mbamba (Pedro Afonso) and Nambu a Ngongo.
117
What battle marked a decisive defeat for Kongo during the First Luso-Kongolese War?
The Battle of Mbumbi in 1622.
118
What international bodies did Pedro II contact following Kongo’s initial defeats?
The Vatican, King Philip III of Portugal and Spain, and the Dutch States General.
119
What was Pedro II's diplomatic move following the First Luso-Kongolese War?
He sought an alliance with the Dutch in exchange for Luanda and payments in ivory and silver.
120
What strategic decision was made at the first Dutch West India Company meeting in August 1623?
To challenge Portuguese Angola and attack Brazil.
121
What was the aim of the first Dutch fleet sent in December 1623?
To blockade Luanda and disrupt Portuguese trade.
122
Why did Piet Heyn fail to capture Luanda in 1624?
The Portuguese had fortified Luanda in response to earlier Dutch threats.
123
Who led the successful Dutch attack on Luanda in 1641 with Kongo’s support?
Cornelis Jol.
124
What did Garcia II request from the Pope during the Dutch-Kongo alliance?
To make the Kongo kingship hereditary in his family.
125
What happened in 1648 that ended effective Dutch-Kongo cooperation?
The Dutch abandoned Angola, allowing the Portuguese to regain power.
126
What did Article Twelve of the 1649 peace treaty between Kongo and Portugal demand?
That Kongo surrender its southern lands and mineral deposits to Portugal.
127
What prompted Antonio I to go to war with Portugal in 1665?
Portuguese prospecting in Kongo’s former southern lands, despite treaty term
128
What was the result of the Battle of Ambuila in 1665?
The total defeat of Kongo’s army and the death and decapitation of Antonio I.
129
What happened in 1666 that signaled Soyo's de facto independence from Kongo?
Soyo's chief sent troops to São Salvador to influence the royal succession.
130
What major event occurred in 1667 in Kongo’s capital?
São Salvador was abandoned following political collapse and war.
131
What was Afonso I's primary source of slaves for trade with the Portuguese?
Foreign captives from wars Kongo fought against Ndongo, Pamzelungu, and Anzico regions.
132
How did Afonso I manage the sale of war captives to the Portuguese?
He set up secure markets where Portuguese could buy captives under his control, maintaining the royal monopoly on the trade.
133
What did Afonso I do to limit the enslavement of freeborn Kongos?
Enslavement was legally restricted to war captives or criminals; freeborn Kongos were protected unless legally condemned.
134
Why was São Tomé significant in the Atlantic slave trade during Afonso’s reign?
It became a hub for Portuguese settlers and convicts who traded independently and undermined Afonso’s authority.
135
How did São Tomé contribute to the deterioration of Kongo-Portuguese relations?
Traders from São Tomé bought slaves from Afonso’s rivals and kidnapped free citizens, prompting Afonso’s complaints to King João III.
136
What was the impact of the Jaga invasion on slavery in Kongo?
It caused large-scale enslavement of freeborn Kongos, including nobles, due to famine and societal collapse.
137
What message did Pedro II send to the Pope and Spain in 1623?
He protested the illegal enslavement of Kongolese nobles and thousands of citizens by the Angolan governor.
138
Why did the enslavement of freeborn Kongos increase in the 17th century?
Decline in war captives, economic demand, manipulation of criminal laws, and political instability led to arbitrary enslavement.
139
What happened to São Salvador in 1666?
It was sacked by the troops of the Count of Soyo, who carried off many slaves, leading to a severe population decline.
140
When did Pedro IV reoccupy São Salvador, and what was the result?
In 1703; it resumed its role as capital in 1709 but never regained its former population levels.
141
What did van Wing report about Kongo’s political state in the early 18th century?
Provinces like Soyo, Mbamba, Mbata, and Nsundi had become independent, and the Holy See addressed each chief directly.
142
What was the significance of the town of Mpinda in Soyo?
It became a secondary center of a slave-based economy due to the accumulation of slaves awaiting transport.
143
How did the Portuguese manipulate religious missions to maintain control over Kongo?
They restricted direct contact between Kongo and the Holy See and used missionaries to assert Portuguese dominance
144
How was the slave trade justified and perpetuated by religious actors?
Clergy claimed selling slaves to non-Catholics was wrong, baptized them, owned them, and used them on plantations.
