Biases in thinking and decision making Flashcards
(25 cards)
What is dual-process theory (Stanovich & West, 2000)?
Suggests two systems of thinking:
* System 1: fast, automatic, emotional
* System 2: slow, deliberate, logical
What is the significance of dual-process theory?
They rely on fast, intuitive thinking (System 1) even when more rational analysis (System 2) would be better.
It explains why people often make biased decisions.
Critique of dual-process theory?
Oversimplifies thinking processes; hard to empirically separate the systems; real-life decisions may involve both simultaneously.
What is confirmation bias and how did Wason (1968) demonstrate it?
Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek evidence that confirms beliefs. Wason showed participants only tested sequences that confirmed their rule hypothesis instead of falsifying it.
Wason (1968) strengths
Demonstrates a common cognitive bias; foundational study.
Limitations of Wason (1968)
Lacks real-world relevance; may reflect task misunderstanding rather than a true bias.
What is cognitive dissonance?
A state of psychological discomfort when holding conflicting cognitions, leading individuals to change beliefs or justify behavior to reduce discomfort.
How did Festinger et al. (1956) study cognitive dissonance in “When Prophecy Fails”?
A doomsday cult’s failure to experience the predicted apocalypse led committed members to rationalize that their faith prevented it, reducing dissonance.
Festinger et al. (1956) strengths
Groundbreaking use of participant observation; real-life setting.
Festinger et al. (1956) limitations
Ethical concerns (deception, observation without consent); lacks replicability.
What did McMasters and Lee (1991) find about cognitive dissonance in smokers?
Smokers minimized their perceived personal risk or justified smoking, despite knowing health risks, to reduce dissonance between knowledge and behavior.
What is optimism bias?
The belief that one is less likely than others to experience negative events and more likely to experience positive outcomes.
Sharot et al. (2011) strengths
Use of neuroimaging provides biological evidence; supports link between bias and brain activity.
How did Sharot et al. (2011) use fMRI to study optimism bias?
Found that optimists showed less frontal lobe activity in response to negative information, suggesting they process it less deeply.
Sharot et al. (2011) limitations
Small sample; lab-based; individual differences in optimism not fully explained.
How are illusory correlations formed?
By focusing on unusual co-occurrences and ignoring contradictory evidence — a form of biased information processing.
What is an illusory correlation and who coined the term?
Chapman & Chapman (1967): A perceived relationship between unrelated variables, often contributing to stereotypes.
What was the aim of Wason (1968)?
o demonstrate confirmation bias in hypothesis testing.
What was the method of Wason (1968)?
Participants were given a number sequence (e.g., 2–4–6) and asked to guess the rule by generating other sequences. Feedback was given on whether each sequence fit the rule. Most tried to confirm, not falsify, their hypotheses
What was the aim of Festinger et al. (1956) – When Prophecy Fails?
To investigate how people cope with disconfirmed beliefs and reduce cognitive dissonance.
What was the method of Festinger et al. (1956)?
Researchers joined a doomsday cult as covert observers. When the predicted apocalypse didn’t happen, they recorded how members rationalized the failed prophecy to maintain belief and reduce psychological discomfort.
What was the aim of McMasters & Lee (1991)?
To investigate how smokers reduce cognitive dissonance about health risks associated with smoking.
What was the method of McMasters & Lee (1991)?
Compared smokers, non-smokers, and ex-smokers on knowledge and personal risk perception. Measured how each group rationalized behavior despite knowing smoking risks.
What was the aim of Sharot et al. (2011)?
To investigate how people maintain unrealistic optimism despite receiving contradictory information.
