Bio Flashcards
(181 cards)
1
Q
Differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
A
- Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles (such as the nucleus and mitochondria)
- Prokaryotic cells do not
2
Q
Virus
A
-
Unique-lack ribosomes
*Very dependent” → Needs host, no ribosomes, no metabolism
3
Q
G protein coupled receptors
A
- Adenylyl cyclase-enzyme that synthesizes cAMP
- receive signals from the environment, such as light, nutrients, and other cells, and translate them into actions within the cell.
- Alpha unit binds to GTP
4
Q
Bacteria
A
“Basic life form” → Has metabolism, ribosomes, reproduces alone
5
Q
Conjugation
A
Transfer in between bacteria
via pinus
6
Q
mRNA levels of genes in an operon
A
Transcription factors:
-binds to promoter
-control when and how genes are turned on or off
7
Q
Operon
A
3 main parts: promoter, operator, and genes controlled by operon
8
Q
Operator
A
Repressors bind to operators
9
Q
Transformation in bacteria
A
-Uptake of DNA across the membrane from the environment
10
Q
Transduction in bacteria
A
- Bacteria phage-like transferring through a duct
- Lytic Cycle-it hijacks its host cell and uses the cell’s resources to make lots of new phages, causing the cell to lyse (burst) and die in the process.
- Lysogenic cycle-The lysogenic cycle allows a phage to reproduce without killing its host; phage DNA recombined with the host genome
11
Q
SNOW DROP
A
12
Q
transpons
A
13
Q
Single strand in bacteria phage
A
Use RNA as genetic material
14
Q
Commensalism
A
a relationship that’s beneficial to one but doesn’t affect another
15
Q
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes chromosomes
A
Eukaryotes have telomers and histones
Telomeres: protect and reserve DNA from degradation
Histones: bind to DNA, help give chromosomes their shape, and help control the activity of genes (restricted to archaean cells and eukaryotic cells)
16
Q
archaea vs bacteria
A
-both are single celled prokaryotes
-archaea lack peptidoglycan found in most bacteria; often found in extreme environments
17
Q
Rough ER vs Smooth ER
A
-the rough ER has ribosomes attached to its surface, giving it a “rough” appearance–mainly for protein synthesis
-the smooth ER lacks ribosomes, mainly for** lipid synthesis** and detoxification process
18
Q
Protein Professing
A
Golgi-function as factories
–>Secretory vesicles
19
Q
Overview of Mitosis
A
- Microtubules–>produce mitotic spindle
- Microtubules Move Things!
(Mitosis, Motion, and Material transport)
20
Q
Prokaryotic cells
A
- transcription and translation occur simultaneously
21
Q
Overview of cellular respiration
A
22
Q
Cellular respiration in prokaryotes
A
23
Q
Cellular respiration in eukaryotes
A
24
Q
Retrovirus Infection
A
- Use reverse transcriptase to convert RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA)–>cDNA integrated into host genome.
25
Functions of cholesterol on membrane fluidity
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Cytoskeletal Filaments
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Osteoblasts
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Chondrocytes
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Bone remodeling
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Chondrocytes
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Skeletal Endocrine Control
* *Osteoclast*-bone crash--> dissolve old and damaged bone-->Ca+ into the blood stream
* *Osteoblast*-the opposite: cells that create new bone and help existing bones grow and heal
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Smooth muscles
involuntary muscles that line the walls of hollow organs and blood vessels
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Muscle Fibers and sarcomeres
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap1/chapter/muscle-fiber-contraction-and-relaxation/
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Actin and Myosin
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"A Pretty Red Rose"
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Contractile Apparatus
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Stop codon
UAA
UGA
UAG
U Are Annoying, U Go Away, and U Are Gone
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Nervous system
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Parietal Lobe
Sensory processing (Primary Somatosensory Cortex), spatial orientation.
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Occipital lobe
Visual processing
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Temporal lobe
**Auditory processing, memory (Hippocampus).
Wernicke's area: Language comprehension.
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cerebellum
coordination of balance and movement
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thalamus
Relay center for sensory information (except smell).
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**Limbic system**
* Hippocampus: store memory
* Amygdala: control fear-alarm system
* Thalamus: messages from the brain make a pit stop at before heading to the spinal cord
* Hypothalamus: brain's thermostat
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**limbic system-functions**
* to process and regulate emotion and memory while also dealing with sexual stimulation and learning
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Peristalsis
* a series of **involuntary muscle contractions** that move food, urine, and bile through the body
47
Nucelotides vs nucelosides
1. Examples of nucleosides include cytidine, uridine, adenosine, guanosine, thymidine, and inosine.
2. Nucleotides are the basic building blocks of nucleic acids, such as RNA and DNA. The sugar molecule in a nucleotide is either ribose in RNA or deoxyribose in DNA.
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Plasma Components
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**Vasoconstriction**
Vasoconstriction = ↓vessel radius = **↑resistance(↑BP) and ↓blood flow**
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Blood flow order
Blood flows in from **systemic circulation** --> **right atrium**--> **tricuspid valve** -->**right ventricle** (blood needs to get oxygenated)--> **pulmonary valve**--> **pulmonary artery** (Blood will get oxygenated and head back)--> **pulmonary vein into the left atrium**--> **bicuspid/mitral valve** -->**the left ventricle.**
The **left ventricle is stronger** since this is what pushes blood into systemic circulation. The blood will pass through the **aortic valve** into the aorta.
At this point, it will travel through arteries into **arterioles (which have the highest drop in blood pressure to ensure the capillaries dont blow up)** and into the capillaries. At the capillaries, oxygen is given to the tissues and the blood will flow out of the capillaries through venules and converge back into veins.
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Valves in Order of Blood Flow
**"Try Pulling My Arm"**
Tricuspid
Pulmonary
Mitral
Aortic
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Reduced blood flow through RT AV valve
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Nephron
Main structures: Bowman's Capsule (Filtration)-->Proximal Tubule (Reaboprtion)-->loop of henle (concentration of urine)--> Distal CT (Fine tuning reabsorption and secretion)-->collecting duct (Final Concentration)
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Loop of henle functions
* Down for water, up for salt,
decide carefully, collect and concentrate
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**Sodium-Potassium pump**
* an enzyme that moves sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane of animal cells
-**active transport** by allowing the ions to flow AGAINST their concentration gradients.
- **establish and maintain** the resting membrane potential and is separate from the AP.
-The Na+/K+ATPase pumps Na & K AGAINST their concentration gradients (**3 Na out, 2 K in**), which helps maintain the concentration gradients, since Na naturally flows in & K naturally flows out.
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**Sodium-Potassium pump function**
* Creates gradient in nerve cells
* Used in kidney-maintain ion balance in the body
* Helps maintain **BP and cardiac contractions**
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Action potential
The massive influx of Na+ through voltage gated ion channels-->depolarization of neurons that occur through the action potential
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leukocytes
-Aka **White Blood cells**
-help body fight against infection and disease
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Inflammation
-blood vessels will **dilate to increase the flow of blood and immune cells to the injury site**
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* Glycogensis
* **high glucose-->glycogen**, stored in the liver and muscles through glycogenesis
* **insulin** stimulates **glycogen synthesis**
* Glucokinase - phosphorylates glucose -> G6P. Important step in glycolysis
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Gastric Lipase
* an enzyme that breaks down dietary fat in the stomach
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Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase
* Rate-limiting enzyme in fatty acid synthesis
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Glucagon
Glucagon = Fasting --> Gotta break down some stored energy
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**Enzyme's induced fit model**
An enzyme's active site can change its shape slightly to accomodate a small variety of structures.
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Breathing
* Diaphragm contracts-->negative pressure
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Mitosis Cycle
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**micronuclei vs macronuclei**
* **Macronuclei**: responsible for metabolic and developmental functions, protein synthesis, somatic functions-**somatic functions**
* **Micronuclei**: serve as a marker for potential genomic instability, typically for reproduction and genetic information
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**Purines and Pyrimindines**
* **Purines-Pure as gold, has two rings**
* Guanine has 3 H donors
* Thymine has the CH3 penis thing sticking out
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Central Nervous System & Peripheral NS
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Oligodendrocytes
* like an octopus whose arms reach out to grab and myelinate multiple axons.
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Schwann cells
* * support and protect nerve cells in the **peripheral nervous system (PNS)**.
* Wraps around one axon-form myelin sheath**
* Myelin sheath decreases capacitance
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**paraymphaetic system-->constricts pupils**
* pupil dilation
* halt on GI peristalsis
* increased blood to the skeletal muscles
* increased heart rate, **inhibition of digestive enzymes including saliva.**
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**CELL Junctions**
* Desmosomes - provide **strength by anchoring** the cytoskeletons, specifically the intermediate filaments. important if there's **mechanical stress**. ex. *skin, muscles*
* Gap junctions (like little windows) - **communication**. protein channels called connexons. only ions and small stuff may passively go through. important for synchrony, like coordinated activity. *Heart (Cardiac) and Smooth Muscle*
* Tight junctions -(like a zipper) **prevent paracellular pathways**. prevent water and other solutes from going in between cells. skin, GI tract
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**cell membrane potential**
* resting: -70mV
* threshold: -55mV
* Peak action potential: +40mV
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**Electrical vs Chemical Synpases**
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**Histone acetylation**
* histone acetylation directly **opens the chromatin structure,** allowing easier access to the transcription machinery-**euchromatin**
* addition of an acetyl (-COCH₃) group to lysine residues on histone proteins
* enhances neural plasticity and memory formation.
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euchromatin
* You're ready to go
* more loosely packed and trancriptionally active
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Bottleneck Effect
* **Sudden environmental changes** that rapidly decrease the number of individuals in a population-->**reduced genetic diversity**
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Mitosis
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Genetic Drift
* Surviving population produces and increases in number but still has less genetic diversity.
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**Euchromatin vs heterochromatin**
AAMC - Acetylation activation methylation cilencing.
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Meiosis and Mitosis
Differences and similarities
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Meiosis I
* Reductional Division
* Homologous chromosomes seperate
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Quick tip-transcription
From DNA coding strand-->mRNA:
**ONLY switch T-->U**
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rRNA
* Catalyzes peptide bond formation
* Helps align mRNA and tRNA
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Stop Codons
AUG (Met for start) **start codons**
* U Go Away (stop)
* U Are Gone (stop)
* U Are Away (stop)
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mechanically activated calcium channels
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functions of kidneys
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Leukocytes
White Blood Cells
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Incomplete Dominance
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Codominance
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Natural Selection
* certain traits-->help offspring survice better-->more likely to have babies and pass those helpful traits on
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Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium
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Adaptive radiation
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Stablizing selections
the process of diversifying characteristics
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ACTH
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Aneuploidy
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Gram Positive vs Negative
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Vitro vs Vivo
* Vitro-outside of a living organisim
* Vivo-inside
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Innate Immunity
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Nucleus
* mRNA transcripts exit the nucleus through small holes in the nuclear envelope called **nuclear pores**
* additional forms of RNA like mRNA are made within the nucleus but not within the nucleolus.
* Site of DNA replication, DNA transcription, post-transcriptional modification
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Ribosomes
* **translation**
* Proteins synthesized in **free-floating vs. RER** have different destinations and jobs.
* Smooth ER (No ribosomes): lipid and hormone synthesis, detoxifies harmful chemicals
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Golgi apparatus
* acts as a** post-office**
* proteins are synthesized by a ribosome, undergo post-translational modifica- tion in the RER, then go to the **Golgi apparatus** to be packaged and exocytosed outside the cell and to its target elsewhere in the body. This is typical protein trafficking.
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**Retrograde Trafficking**
* Take the **standard order** of the protein manufacturing process and flip it.
* plasma membrane-->golgi--> RER-->ribosome.
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**Mitochrondria**
* Kreb’s Cycle, oxidative phosphorylation
* Maintains a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial mem- brane which is used to drive ATP synthesis
* **The proton gradient -->drives ATP synthase**
* Mitochondria dxs can be only inherited from mother
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**baseline measurement**
* the **initial data** collected before any experimental intervention to serve as a **reference point**.
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order of the cell cycle phases (G₁, S, G₂, M)
Go Sally, Go Make Cookies
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Facilitated Diffusion
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sympathetic fight-or-flight response
* Pupil Dilation
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**Aldosterone**
*Kidneys (Distal tubules & Collecting ducts)
⬆ **Na⁺ reabsorption in the distal tubule**→ Water follows → ⬆ BP & volume ⬆ K⁺ excretion
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**ADH-hold onto water**
*⬆ **Water reabsorption via aquaporins **(*collecting ducts)*-->BP up
* Less urine, more concentrated (only water reabsorbed, not Na⁺)
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**Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)**
* reduce excess blood volume, HBP, and high sodium levels
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**single vs double cross over**
* A single exchange of genetic material: between two homologous chromosomes at one point--> creates genetic diversity.
* Double crossovers: between the same chromatids-->might enhance or cancel out recombination
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**G-Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs)**
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Glycolysis
🔹 ATP and NADH Produced & Used
💰 Investment Phase (Uses ATP):
Step 1: Glucose → Glucose-6-Phosphate (Uses 1 ATP)
Step 3: Fructose-6-Phosphate → Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphate (Uses 1 ATP)
💵 Payoff Phase (Produces ATP & NADH):
Step 6: NAD⁺ → NADH (per G3P, so 2 NADH total)
Step 7 & Step 10: Each produces 2 ATP, for a total of 4 ATP
⚖️ Net Yield: 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvate
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**Insulin injection**
* Insulin promotes esterification, which means fatty acids are stored as triglycerides rather than used for energy.
* Insulin encourages **the storage of excess glucose as fat-->lipid synthesis**
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free radicals
* **Free radicals = unstable molecules that can damage cells**
* Created when molecules lose or gain an electron, making them highly reactive.
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Intermediate Filaments
* provide structural support and mechanical strength to cells
* keratins
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amino acid residues
* May act as Brønsted acids or bases, reducing shifts in pH
✅ Why?
* Plasma proteins are composed of amino acids, which contain functional groups (carboxyl and amino groups) that can act as proton donors (acids) or acceptors (bases).
These side chains help stabilize blood pH by binding or releasing hydrogen ions (H⁺) as needed.
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**Analogous Structures**
✔ Same function, different evolutionary origin
✔ Different anatomical structures but serve a similar purpose
✔ Result of convergent evolution (organisms adapt to similar environments in different ways)
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**Homologous structures**
Different function, same ancestry (Divergent evolution).
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Glucose
* All the alcohol groups are on the right side - except for the second alcohol group down.
* 3 alcohol groups in the front-left plane go (from left to right; down, up, then down)
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channel proteins
* allow for facilitated diffusion and are generally named after the molecule they transport
* ex: sodium channels-a protein that allow for facilitated diffusion of sodium.
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carrier proteins
* **transport protein**
* change shape to transfer molecules across the plasma membrane
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cAMP
* ✔ cAMP is a second messenger that amplifies signals inside cells.
* ✔ Activates PKA, leading to metabolic regulation, heart rate control, and memory formation.
* ✔ Hormones like glucagon, epinephrine, and ADH rely on cAMP for their effects.
* ✔ Degraded by phosphodiesterase (PDE), which is inhibited by caffeine.
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epimers
* **differ at only one chiral center,** not mirror image
* anomeric carbon-a special chiral center in cyclic sugars that determines alpha (α) or beta (β) anomers
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**palindromic sequence**
* a segment of DNA that reads the same in both directions when considering the complementary strand.
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hydroquinone
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Hydroxylation
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Somatic nervous system
* Voluntary (skeletal muscle, movement, reflexes, fast response)
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Autonomic nervous system
* Nonvoluntary (organs, glands, homeostasis, slower response
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thryroid hormome
* Thyroid hormones (T₃ and T₄)-**enhancing sympathetic nervous system (SNS) **
* Increasing sensitivity to **catecholamines** (epinephrine and norepinephrine)
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**Ectoderm: attracto-derm**
* Skin, hair, nails, eyes, teeth, the nervous system.
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**Endoderm: internal organs
(digestive and respiratory systems)**
*** LIP GUTS** (central tube around which the rest of the body is formed)
* liver, intestinal epithelium, pancreas, gallbladder, urinary bladder, the glands, and stomach
***leave the kidney aside***
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**Mesoderm** **(circulatory system+connective tissues)**
* Muscles, bones, blood vessels, and connective tissue if they’re referencing mesoderm.
* **Hearts**
* **Kidney**
* "MUSCLE"
(because mesoderm gives rise to muscles!)
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Glycolysis
* occurs in cytoplasm
* Yields a net of 2 ATP and 2 NADH
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aerobic
* **pyruvate-->acetyl-CoA-->Kreb's cycle**
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Kreb's cycle
* very important bc it makes **NADH and FADH2**
* occurs in mitochondrial matrix of eukaryotic cells
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ETC
* ETC occurs in mitochondria
* 1 NADH=10 Hs
* FADH2=6 Hs
* 10 Hs=3 ATPs
*** 1 NADH=3 ATPs
* 1 FADH2=2 ATPs**
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hemoglobin
* changes in the production of protein subunits-->different protein structures
* cofactors, coenzymes, and prosthetic groups-molecules that play essential roles in enzymatic function of enzymes
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cofactors
* inorganic ions or small molecules-required for the proper functioning of some enzymes
* cofactors-magnesium (Mg2+), zinc (Zn2+), and calcium (Ca2+).
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Coenzyme
✔ Bind to the active site of an enzyme.
✔ Help transfer molecules (electrons, hydrogen, carbon groups, etc.).
✔ Release after the reaction is complete, ready for reuse.
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Nucelotides Binding
* Phosphodiester bonds (covalent) link nucleotides into a chain (backbone).
* Hydrogen bonds (non-covalent) hold complementary DNA strands together (base pairing).
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Hemoglobin & Oxygen Dissociation Curves
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Taut vs. Relaxed state of Hb
* Taut="upright"-->doesn't attract any either.
* "relaxed"=he had a couple glasses of oxygen-->attract more
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Right vs Left shift
* CADET-face right
* If you increase them, you'll get a right shift
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peptide hormone
* peptide/water=cell membrane receptor
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Steroid/lipid-soluble
* diffuses
through cell membrane to work in cytoplasm or nucleus
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Protein Trafficking
* Ribosomes → ER → Golgi Apparatus
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sperm pathway
SEVEN UP
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**albumin/plasma proteins**
* the pressure exerted by large molecules, primarily proteins, in the blood plasma that draws water back into the capillaries from the surrounding interstitial fluid.
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knee-jerk reflex
No brain involved
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pleural cavity
* thin fluid-filled space between two membranes surrounding each lung
* Negative pressure, think pleural cavity
* Lung collapse, think pleural disruption
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Epinephrine
* Secreted by the **adrenal medulla**
* Directly stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system (via acetylcholine)
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anterior pituitary hormones
* FLAT hormones tell other glands what to do, while PEG hormones do it themselves.
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**caspase activation**
* how your body turns inactive caspases (like **safety scissors) into active cell-cutting enzymes** that carry out apoptosis (programmed cell death).
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sense/coding strand
* **SENSE = Same Sequence" (as mRNA, except T → U)**
* same base sequence as the mRNA
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template/antisense strand
* what you TYPE from
* RNA polymerase uses the template strand to type out the RNA.
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myoglobin
* oxygen binding molecules in muscles and organs
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synapsis=“Snap” together
* **homologous chromosomes pairing up** during prophase I of meiosis
* allows for cross over and genectic variation
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ACH (acetylcholine)
* **Parasympathetic system ("rest & digest")**: ACh slows the heart, increases digestion, etc.
* main chemical that carries out parasympathetic "rest-and-digest" actions
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muscle fiber types
* fast twitch-->anaerobic
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Sterols/cholesterol
* found mainly in **eukaryotic cell membranes**
* prokaryotic membranes generally lack sterols.
* **cholesterol-steriod structure: four fused carbon rings**
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Bone resorption
* Bone Breakdown
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**transcription location**
* nucleus
166
pancreas function
* Helps with digestion: makes special jucice that helps break down food
* Controls blood sugar – It makes hormones like insulin and glucagon
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small intestine function
* Finishes digesting food
* Absorbs nutrients
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progesterone
*prepares uterus for the **implantation **and **pregnancy**
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estrogen
* estrogen-->a surge of LH-->ovulation
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HCG
* maintain corpus luteum-->allow for **progesterone**
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LH
* produced in the anterior pituitary
* LH-->Ovulation
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antibiotics
* doesn't cause mutations in bacteria
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spleen
*lymph organ-**housing immune cells which filter blood for pathogens**
* storing blood and recycling old blood
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Adenylate cyclase
* **produce cAMP-->a secondary messenger**
* activated by G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)
* cAMP helps amplify signals inside the cell
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osmotic pressure
* It pulls water in to the area with more solutes (like salt or proteins).
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**hydrostatic pressure**
* Caused by: **Fluid pushing outward** (like blood pushing against vessel walls)
* It pushes water out of a space (like from capillaries into surrounding tissue)
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capillaries
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break donw of fats
* Glycerol → goes to the liver for **gluconeogenesis** (can become glucose).
* Acetyl-CoA → fuels the Krebs cycle or becomes ketone bodies.
* NADH & FADH₂ → used for ATP production in the mitochondria
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Breathing-Lung Movement
180
blood vessel flowchart
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