Psych & Socio Flashcards
(177 cards)
1
Q
Hippocampus
A
-responsible for your memory and learning
2
Q
Amygdala
A
-involved with emotion, aggression, and fears
-stimulation of amygdala results in anger, violence, and fear
3
Q
stress response system
A
- Adrenal Cortex-outer layer of the kidney
- Adrenal Medulla=inner part of the kidney–>epinereprhine & norenphierine
4
Q
Operant conditioning
A
Reinforcement and habituation with rewards and punishment
5
Q
Dishabituation
A
- When a previously habituated stimulus produces response again
- ex: A person may spend more time looking at their partner’s face if they get a drastic haircut.
6
Q
Desensitization
A
-
Decreased response to a previously sensitized stimulus over time
eg: afraid of birds–>your therapist let you talk more about birds in detail
7
Q
Serial Position Effect
A
- Selective recall of items presented at the beginning (primacy) and the end (recency) effect
8
Q
Sleep stages and waves
A
BAT DB
-NREM Sleep+REM=1 cycle=90 minutes
-Theta waves- stage 1+ stage 2 (w/ sleep spindles and K complexes-largest event in healthy human EEG)
-Delta-stage 3&4 slow wave sleep
-REM high f, low amplitude-similar to beta waves
9
Q
Physiological changes of REM
A
10
Q
Long term memory
A
* Explicit and implicit memories
* Procedural-riding a bike or tying shoes
* Semantic-facts & concepts: “What is the capital of Canada?” → Semantic Memory!
11
Q
Source Monitoring
A
- Errors that occur when an individual incorrectly attributes a memory to the wrong source
12
Q
Instinctive drift
A
13
Q
Speech Production
A
Broca Area=”broken”
14
Q
Speech Comprehension
A
Wernicke’s area
15
Q
Hemisphere Lateralization
A
- Visualization-creativity and imagination
- LT-analytical reasoning; language
- Right Handed-left hemisphere more developed
16
Q
Mirror neuron system
A
-Firing both while observing and performing a behavior
-observational learning-an individual learns how to behave by watching someone else doing the behavior
17
Q
Retroactive Interference
A
- Most recently learned knowledge interfered with the old knowledge
- Learning a new language – If you recently started learning Spanish, you might struggle to recall the French words you previously learned.
18
Q
“PORN”
A
P: Proactive interference – (Old information interferes with new information).
O: Old memories disrupt new learning.
R: Retroactive interference – New information interferes with old information.
N: New learning disrupts old memo
19
Q
Sensory Memory
A
-Temporarily stores memory; the shortest: 1s-2s
-Sensory memory is the brief storage of information that comes from the five senses: sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch.
20
Q
Short term memory
A
21
Q
Language Acquisition
A
Interactionist=
biological+social/environmental
22
Q
Memory Encoding and Retrieval
A
23
Q
Symptoms of Depression
A
Mania-indicative of bipolar disorder
24
Q
Memory Retrieval
A
- State dependent-internal cues-moods
- Context Dependent-external cues that aid retrieval-places
25
Role playing effects
-when individuals take attitudes that align with social roles that they're playing with
-ex: subjects in a study are surveyed of their opinion on a new car model. They were then told to act as a car salesman to sell that new car to potential clients. They were then surveyed again, where its found that their opinion about the car became more positive - due to them pretending to be car salesmen and promoting the car
26
Fluid and crystallized Intelligence vs age
27
Crystalized Intelligence
=prior experiences+learning
increase with age
28
Memory vs age
Fluid Int: the ability to think creatively and ID new patterns
29
Normal Memory Decay
30
Continuous Reinforcement
-reward mouse each time it does the desired behavior
-best way to perform a new behavior
31
Attention
* **Selective attention**: focus on one thing at a time
* **Devided attention**: a focus on two events at once
* ex: listening to music while working out
32
Dishabituation
-a renewed response to a previously habituated stimulus
-ex: after taking off the sweater and putting it back on, it feels scratchy again
33
**Hawthorne Effect
(Being Observed Changes Behavior)**
-being observed can influence people's actions
34
Social Desirability Bias 😊 (Wanting to Look Good)
* People change their responses in surveys or studies to make themselves look better rather than answer honestly.
* In a survey about exercise habits, a person exaggerates how often they go to the gym because they want to appear healthy.
35
Indepnedent Variable
-manipulated by the researchers to see if they had effect on the dependent variable
36
Confounding Variables
* uncontrolled variables that affect the controlled variables
37
Hydrostatic Pressure
* pressure exerted by a fluid at rest, due to the force of gravity.
38
Electric Current
I=Q/t; V=I*R
39
C--># of electrons
1 coulomb (C) is equal to approximately 6.25 x 10^18 electrons
40
Memory retrieval
free recall-retrieval of previously learned info without a cue
cued reca
41
Erikson Psychosocial Stages
42
Episodic memory
* **recall personal experiences**, including the sensory, emotional, and perceptual details of specific events
* ex: a birthday party, a first date, a phone call etc...
43
Flashbulb Memory
* a vivid, long-lasting memory of how someone learned about a surprising or shocking event
44
Retroactive Interference
More recent information interferes with one's ability to recall old information
45
Context dependent memory
Context-**physcial environment**
46
Escape learning
-to remove current undesirable stimulus
47
Avoidance learning
-prevent future undesirable stimulus
48
Working memory vs short term memory
* your brain’s temporary “scratchpad” for holding and using information in real time.
✅ Example 1: Mental Math 🧮
Problem: Solve 23 + 48 in your head.
You hold 23 and 48 in memory, add them step by step, and reach 71.
Afterward, you probably forget the numbers because working memory is temporary.
49
Different types of working memory
50
Motion Parallax
a **monocular depth cue** that causes objects that are closer to you to appear to move faster than objects that are further away
51
The phi phenomon
an illusion of movement that arises when stationary objects—light bulbs, for example—are placed side by side and illuminated rapidly one after another
52
Retinal Disparity
the difference in the images that each eye sees when looking at an object, which is a vital part of depth perception
53
Speech Shadowing
a psycholinguistic experimental technique in which subjects repeat speech at a delay to the onset of hearing the phrase
54
Divided Attention (multi-tasking)
55
Long Term Potentiation
56
Demographic Transition Model
* stage 1 high birth high death because no contraception/poor hygiene
* stage 2 high birth decreasing death because of industrialization/better sanitation
* stage 3 decreasing birth low death because contraception/more working women
* stage 4 low birth low death
* stage 5 super low birth low death leading to very large older population/baby boomer crisis.
57
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
**Linguistic Relativity**
58
**Linguistic Determinism**
59
Nativist Hypothesis
60
Contralateralization
* the opposite side of the brain controls a specific function or part of the body
61
Distribution of Cones and Rods in Retina
Blind Spot-Optic Disc
62
Parvo vs Mango Pathway
* Parvocellular -(**parvo mean small in latin**) are associated with the ventral visual pathway or "what" pathway-->fine details
* Magnocellular - (Magno means large) are associated with the dorsal visual pathway or "where" pathway-->
63
Observational studies
**Cross Sectional**-analyzes data from a population at a *specific point in time*-examines the prevalence and characteristics of a particular phenomenon
Case:
64
Tolerance
Greater dose-->same effect
65
Correlation Coefficient
-1 = strong NEGATIVE correlation
+1 = strong POSITIVE correlation
0 = NO correlation
Correlation NOT EQUAL to causation
66
Rationalization
* **People justify difficult or unacceptable feelings with seemingly logical reasons and explanations**-->**protect their ego**
* For example, a student who is rejected from her dream college may explain that she’s happy to be attending a school that’s less competitive and more welcoming
67
Displacement
* a person redirects a negative emotion from its original source to a less threatening recipient.
* e.g., A student who is angry with her professor takes it out on her very understanding boyfriend because it avoids the anxiety that would arise from attacking her professor
- e.g., A person with an inappropriate lust who displaces that urge onto a permissible target avoids the anxiety that would arise from expressing the desires toward the true target
68
Limbic System
69
Internal Vs External Validity
70
Whisker Plot
* 95% CI: if you repeated the experiment 100 times, 95 of those times the true value would be within the interval.
* If the notches across two groups do not overlap, the medians of the two groups are probably significantly different.
71
ID, ego, and superego
72
Projection
* a person **attributes their own feelings, thoughts, or insecurities to someone else instead of admitting them**.
* Key Idea: **"It’s not me—it’s you**!"
When someone can’t accept their own emotions or flaws, they push them onto others to avoid discomfort.
* ex: a person who feels jealous of a friend’s success accuses the friend of being jealous of them instead.
73
**Reaction Formation**
* Expressing **the opposite of one's true feelings or desires**
* ex: A person who is secretly attracted to a coworker might act rude or dismissive toward them because they feel guilty or uncomfortable about their attraction.
74
Maslow's pyramid
*** please stop liking stupid shit:**
* physiological needs: Food 🍔, water 💧, air 🌬, sleep 😴, shelter 🏠
* safety: job security 💼, health 🏥, financial stability 💰
* love: Friends 👭, family ❤️, romantic relationships 💑, community 🤝
* self-esteem: Confidence 💪, recognition 🏆, respect 👏, achievement 🎓
* self-actualization: Reaching your full potential 🌟, creativity 🎨, personal development 📚.
75
Social reproduction
* transmission of **social benefits/inequality** from one generation to the next
76
Drive reduction theory
* a theory of motivation that explains how people are driven to reduce physiological needs
* ex: When you're hungry, you eat to reduce the discomfort of hunger.
77
self-concept
78
prospective chart review
79
embedded field study
80
longitudinal study
same subjects over time
81
counfounding vs mediating variable
82
odds ratio
* a way to measure how strongly an exposure (X) is linked to an outcome (Y)
83
Anterior Pituitary
84
Posterior Pituitary
85
CNS-GABA=Grab A Break Already
* Main** inhibitory neurotransmitter**
* Alcohol binds and activates GABA receptors (in other words, alcohol is a **GABA agonist**), so the effects of GABA are associated with alcohol intoxication
86
PNS-neurotransmitters
*** acetylcoline-activate muscle contraction**
* Serotonin-regulate inestinal movement in the GI tract
* Epinephrine-flight and fight response
* Norepineohrine-sympathetic division of ANS-increase arousal and alterness and focuses attention
87
cross sectional study
* * analyzes data **at a single point in time** to understand patterns, relationships, or differences in a population
* *understand patterns, relationships, or differences in a population
* *Like **a snap shot**-captures what’s happening right now
88
hypothalamus
* Hypothalamus → (CRH) → Pituitary → (ACTH) → Adrenal Cortex → (Cortisol)
*Anterior Hypothalamus = Cooling (sweating)
Posterior Hypothalamus = Heating (shivering)
89
Positive control
90
**error bars**
*When error bars overlap, it suggests that the difference between the groups might not be statistically significant because the ranges of their possible values intersect.
91
**fundamental attribution error**
* The fundamental attribution error happens when we **blame someone's behavior on their personality** instead of considering the situation they are in
92
**self-serving bias**
* We take credit for our successes but blame external factors for our failures
93
Lateral Hypothalamus ("Let's eat!")
* Controls hunger
94
social learning
* people can learn new behaviors, attitudes, and skills just by observing others, rather than through direct experience.
95
**Social Constructionism-society decides the meaning.**
* Many things we consider "real" or "natural" are actually **created and maintained by society through culture, language, and social norms.**
✅ Meaning is created by society – Things only have meaning because we all agree on it.
✅ Changes over time – Social constructs evolve based on cultural shifts.
✅ Depends on social interactions – Without people, these "realities" wouldn’t exist.
96
**Ethnocentrism**
* Judging another culture based on your own culture’s values and beliefs
* people believe their own culture is superior and use it as the standard to judge others.
* **Universal norms: what everyone should follow.**
97
Eustress (Good stress)
98
Distress = Bad stress (Overwhelming, Harmful)
99
**Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)**
* **Central Route (Deep Thinking)** 🧠 – People analyze information carefully.
* **Peripheral Route (Superficial Thinking**) 🌟 – People rely on surface-level cues.
100
Deductive reasoning
* 💡 a general rule-->applies it to specific cases to reach a logical conclusion.
101
Inductive Reasoning
* Specific Observations → General Rule or Pattern
102
Core Components of Emotion
103
Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
✅ Schachter-Singer = Two-Factor Theory (Arousal + Cognition = Emotion)
✅ Your brain must label your physiological response for emotion to occur.
"S.S. Needs Two Steps" 🚶♂️🚶♂️
Since Schachter-Singer (S.S.) is the Two-Factor Theory, remember:
1️⃣ Step 1: Body reacts (heart pounding, sweating).
2️⃣ Step 2: Brain interprets it (Why is this happening?).
🎯 Only THEN do you feel the emotion!
104
Emotion Theories
105
Variable-Ratio Reinforcement
* Rewarded after an unpredictable number of responses.
* leads to high, steady response rates because the reward is unpredictable.
106
Variable-interval
* rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time passes.
107
Retinal disparities
* Your two eyes see slightly different images, and your brain uses these differences to perceive depth.
*Greater disparity = Closer object
108
**construct validity**
*Accuracy of **measuring a concept**
* The test truly measures what it claims to measure.
* ex: An IQ test should measure intelligence, not just memorization.
109
Content validity
* Does the test cover all aspects of the concept?
* ex: a math test should have algebra, geometry, and word problems, not just one type.
110
Criterion Validity
* Does the test predict **real-world outcomes**?
* A job skills test should predict job performance.
111
Availability Heuristic
* We judge how likely something is based on how easily we can recall examples.
✅ If something comes to mind quickly, we assume it's more common or likely.
✅ Often influenced by recent events, media coverage, or personal experiences.
✅ Can lead to overestimations or biases.
112
Representativeness Heuristic
* We judge the probability of something based on **how much it resembles a stereotype**, rather than actual statistics
113
confirmation bias
* People pay more attention to **information that supports views they already hold**
114
**Symbolic interactionism**
* Key Idea: People create meaning through **small social interactions using symbols**
✅ People give meaning to things based on social context.
✅ Meanings can change through interactions and experiences.
ex: a wedding ring or A wave 👋 means "hello" — because we learned it through social interaction or thumbs up
115
**Funtional fixedness**
* Functional fixedness refers to the tendency to see objects as serving only the purpose they were designed for. This example does not involve identifying the purpose of any object, so it does not describe functional fixedness.
116
Informational Influence – "They Must Be Right!" 📚
* 💡 Key Idea: We conform because we believe others have more accurate information.
* changing beliefs or behaviors in
order to fit into a group or society.
117
Normative Influence – "I Want to Fit In!" 😊
118
opponent-process theory
* Opposing forces in the brain control emotions, color vision, and addiction.
119
Folkways vs mores
* Folkways (Minor Social Norms – No Serious Consequences)
* Mores (Stronger Moral Norms – Some Have Legal Consequences)
120
Group polarization
* when people in a group discussion become more extreme in their opinions than they were before
121
Groupthink
* Groupthink happens when people in a group go along with the majority opinion to **avoid conflict**, even if they privately disagree.
* Not considering outside ideas.
122
Double approach-avoidance conflict
* Double approach-avoidance conflict occurs when a person has two options, and each option has both positive (approach) and negative (avoidance) aspects.
123
Approach-avoidance conflict
* An approach-avoidance conflict is observed when a single potential decision has substantial pros and cons to weigh
* e.g., “buying this house is a good investment, but will cost a lot of money.”
124
shadowing
* a person immediately repeats words or phrases they hear
* measures **selection attention**
125
chucking
*** groups them into meaningful units.**
✅ Example: Remembering a Phone Number
Instead of 9174328691, we chunk it into (917) 432-8691 → much easier to recall!
126
Episodic memory
* episodic, recall, and prospective memories decline over time
* semantic, emotional reasoning, and crystalized intelligence improve with age.
* **ex: Graduation Day – Remembering walking across the stage, hearing your name called, and feeling proud.**
127
Material culture
* physical objects, artifacts, and tangible creations.
* the people, groups, and institutions that influence an individual's social development, values, behaviors, and norms
128
Actor-observer bias
* the tendency for **individuals (actors) to attribute their own behavior to situational factors**, while **observers attribute the actor’s behavior to dispositional (internal) factors**.
129
Reinforcement Schedule
130
Diathesis-Stress Model
131
Rogers’s humanistic theory
* Humanistic psychologists believe incongruence between these selves causes discomfort.
132
Social facilitation
* presence of others **enhances performance on simple/familiar tasks**
* for difficult tasks, presence of others may impair performance
133
Social Loafing
*when individuals put in less effort when working in a group than they would if working alone.
134
encoding specificity effect
* most effective when the context at retrieval matches the context during encoding
135
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
* “Some People Can Fly”
136
counter conditioning
* replaces a negative response with a positive one by pairing the feared stimulus with a pleasant stimulus.
137
Belief perseverance
* clinging to initial beliefs despite contrary evidence.
138
A CAT scan
*detailed images of brain structure
* visualizing size, shape, and volume of ventricles.
139
Looking glass self
* We form our self-image based on how we think others see us.
* see ourselves through others' eyes
* ex: you think your classmates found your speech boring → you believe you’re bad at public speaking.
139
labeling theory
* People become what they are labeled as.
* ex: adolescents being stigmatized regardless of their actual behavior.
139
PET scan (positron emission tomography)
* Measures brain activity/metabolism by tracking radioactive glucose.
* functional studies (e.g., detecting Alzheimer’s patterns)
139
Social stigma
* An attribute that is devalued.
139
EEG (electroencephalogram)
electrical activity in the brain (brain waves).
139
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
***A belief or expectation—whether correct or not—leads to behavior that makes it come true**.
* ex: A teacher believes a student is gifted → gives more attention → student performs better → proves the belief right.
139
Reproducibility of research
* Would relate to whether the results can be **replicated** in other studies?
139
Ethnographic research
* a **qualitative research design** in which researchers immerse themselves in a social environment or culture to observe behaviors, practices, and interactions — often over a period of time.
140
median
* not affected by outliers
* Median is not affected by outliers.
140
thalamus
* relay station for sensory information
141
basal ganglia
* smoothens movements and helps maintain postural stability
142
fornix
* communication within limibic system
143
Bottom-up Processing
* Bottom-Up = Build-Up
* We build up to a final perception from raw data (like sights, sounds, smells).
* Slower, but less prone to mistakes
144
Gestalt principles
* We organize visual information into **meaningful wholes**, rather than just seeing a collection of parts.
145
Trial and error
* try different solutions until one works
146
Algorithms
*An algorithm is a step-by-step, logical procedure that guarantees a correct solution if followed correctly.
* like a recipe
147
Arcuate Fasciculus
* a bundle of nerve fibers that **connects Broca’s area (speech production) and Wernicke’s area (language comprehension) in the brain**
* Plays **a critical role in language**, especially in repeating heard speech and coordinating speech and understanding.
148
Retina function
* detects light, processes visual information, and sends it to the brain so you can see
149
Optic disk
* optic disk (also called the optic disc or blind spot) is a key part of the eye where the optic nerve exits the retina.
150
Cannon-Bard (both)
* Stimulus → Body + Emotion (at the same time)
151
Schachter-Singer (2-Factor/step)
* Stimulus → Body → Interpret → Emotion
152
primary vs secondary Appraisal
153
self-esteem
* estimation of your own worth
154
Somatic symptom disorder
* a person feels real physical symptoms (like pain, tiredness, or stomach aches) and worries a lot about them (doctors can't find real problems)
* Real symptoms + Too much worry + Life disruption
155
Illness anxiety disorder
* when a person worries a lot about being seriously sick, even if they have little or no physical symptoms.
156
compliance
* individuals change behavior
based on the request of others
157
# FF
Lowball Technique
* First get someone to agree to something at a low cost (or favorable conditions)
* Then raise the cost or add extra demands after they've already agreed.
158
Obedience
* change in behavior based on a
command from someone seen as **an authority
figure.**
159
Display Rules
* cultural guidelines about how, when, and where you are supposed to express emotions.
160
Dispositional causes-internal causes
* when we explain someone’s behavior based on their personality, traits, or choices
161
Situational (external)
* features
of the surroundings or social context
162
Correspondent inference theory
* how we decide if someone’s behavior really reflects their personality (who they are inside).
163
Incidence
* new cases population/population at risk
164
Anomie
* a breakdown or absence of social norms and values — that can lead to feelings of isolation, purposelessness, and anxiety.
165
Reaction formation
* When someone feels an emotion or desire they consider socially or personally unacceptable, they overcompensate by expressing the opposite feeling or behavior.
166
Regression
* a person reverts to behaviors from an earlier stage of development when faced with stress, anxiety, or conflict.
167
Strain theory
* People are pressured to achieve society’s goals (like wealth or success), but not everyone has equal access to the approved means (like education, stable jobs).
168
Differential Association
* According to Differential Association, the student didn't just “decide” to steal — they learned the behavior, values, and justifications through repeated interactions with deviant peers.
*
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