Bio 235 chapter 2 chemical level of organization Flashcards
(151 cards)
1
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the science of the structure and interactions of matter.
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Chemistry
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Q
anything that occupies space and has mass.
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Matter
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amount of matter in any object, which does not change
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Mass
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the force of gravity acting on matter, does change.
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Weight
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are compact and have a definite shape and volume.
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Solids
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have a definite volume and assume the shape of their container.
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Liquids
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have neither a definite shape nor volume.
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Gases
8
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All forms of matter—both living and nonliving—are made up of a limited number of building blocks called
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chemical elements.
9
Q
Major elements
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Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
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Q
Lesser elements
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Calcium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sulfur
Sodium
Chlorine
Magnesium
Iron
11
Q
the smallest units of matter that retain the properties and characteristics of the element.
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Atom
12
Q
Part of water and many organic (carbon-containing) molecules; used to generate ATP, a molecule used by cells to temporarily store chemical energy.
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Oxygen
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Q
Forms backbone chains and rings of all organic molecules: carbohydrates, lipids (fats), proteins, and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
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Carbon
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Q
Constituent of water and most organic molecules; ionized form (H+) makes body fluids more acidic.
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Hydrogen
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Component of all proteins and nucleic acids.
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Nitrogen
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Contributes to hardness of bones and teeth; ionized form (Ca2+) needed for blood clotting, release of some hormones, contraction of muscle, and many other processes.
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Calcium
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Component of nucleic acids and ATP; required for normal bone and tooth structure.
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Phosphorus
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Ionized form (K+) is the most plentiful cation (positively charged particle) in intracellular fluid; needed to generate action potentials.
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Potassium
19
Q
three types of subatomic particles that are important for understanding the chemical reactions in the human body:
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Protons
Neutrons
Electrons
20
Q
The dense central core of an atom
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Nucleus
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positively charged atom
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Proton
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Negatively charged atom
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Electron
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may be depicted as simple circles around the nucleus.
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Electron shells
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The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
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Atomic number
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sum of protons and n e u t r o n s .
Mass number
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atoms of an ele-
ment that have di! erent numbers of neutrons and therefore different mass numbers.
Isotopes
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unstable isotope; their nuclei decay (spontaneously change) into a stable con- figuration.
Radioactive isotopes
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time re- quired for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample of that isotope to decay into a more stable form.
Half life of an isotope
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The standard unit for measuring the mass of atoms and their sub- atomic particle
Dalton
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average mass of all its naturally occurring isotopes
Atomic mass
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If an atom either gives up or gains electrons, it becomes an
Ion
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an atom that has a positive or negative charge because it has unequal numbers of protons and electrons.
Ion
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process of giving up or gaining electrons.
Ionization
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When two or more atoms share electrons, the resulting combi-
nation
Molecule
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indicates the elements and the number of atoms of each element that make up a molecule.
Molecular formula
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substance that contains atoms of two or more different elements
Compound
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an atom or group of atoms with an
unpaired electron in the outermost shell.
Free radical
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The forces that hold together the atoms of a molecule or a compound
Chemical bonds
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The likelihood that an atom will form a chemical bond with another atom depends on the number of electrons in its outermost shell,
Valence shell
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unlikely to form chemical bonds with other atoms.
Chemically stable
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Under the right conditions, two or more atoms can interact in ways that produce a chemically stable arrangement of eight valence electrons for each atom
Octet rule
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The force of attraction that holds together ions with opposite charges
Ionic bond
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positively charged ion.
Cation
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negatively charged ion.
Anion
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An ionic compound that breaks apart into positive and negative ions in solution
Electrolyte
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two or more atoms share electrons rather than gaining or losing them.
Covalent bond
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results when two atoms share two pairs of electrons, as happens in an oxygen molecule
Double covalent bond
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occurs when two atoms share three pairs of electrons, as in a molecule of nitrogen
Triple covalent bond
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two atoms share the electrons equally—
one atom does not attract the shared electrons more strongly than the other atom.
Nonpolar covalent bond
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the sharing of electrons between two atoms is unequal—the nucleus of one atom attracts the shared elec-
trons more strongly than the nucleus of the other atom.
Polar covalent bond
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the power to attract electrons to itself.
Electronegativity
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A very important example of a polar covalent bond in living systems
bond between oxygen and hydrogen in a molecule of water
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result from attraction of oppositely charged parts of molecules rather than from sharing of electrons as in covalent bonds, or the loss or gain of electrons as in ionic bonds.
Hydrogen bond
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A measure of the difficulty of stretching or breaking the
surface of a liquid
Surface tension
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establish important links between molecules or between different parts of a large molecule, such as a protein or
nucleic acid
Hydrogen bond
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occurs when new bonds form or old bonds break between atoms.
Chemical reaction
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starting substances—
Reactants
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ending substances
Product
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chemical reactions occurring in the body.
Metabolism
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capacity to do work.
Energy
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energy stored by matter due to its position,
Potential energy
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the energy associated with matter in motion.
Kinetic energy
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form of potential energy that is stored in the bonds of compounds and molecules.
Chemical energy
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Although energy can be neither created nor destroyed, it may be converted from one form to another. This principle is known as
Law of conservation of energy
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release more energy than they absorb
Exergonic reaction
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absorb more energy than they release.
Endergonic reactions
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The collision energy needed to break the chemical bonds of the reactants
Activation energy
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The more particles of matter present in a confined
space, the greater the chance that they will collide
Concentration
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As it rises, particles of matter move about
more rapidly.
Temperature
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chemical compounds that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy needed for a reaction to occur
Catalyst
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Does a catalyst change the potential energies of the
products and reactants?
A catalyst does not alter the di! erence in potential energy between the reactants and the products. Rather, it lowers the amount of energy needed to start the reaction.
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hen two or more atoms, ions, or molecules com ine to form new and lar er molecules, the processes
Synthesis reaction
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usually endergonic because they absorb more energy than they release.
Anabolic reactions
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split up large molecules into smaller
atoms, ions, or molecules.
Decomposition reactions
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The decomposition reactions that occur in your body are collec-
tively referred to as
Catabolism
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they consist of both synthesis and decomposition reactions.
Exchange reactions
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the products can revert to the original reactants. Indicated by two half-arrows pointing in opposite directions.
Reversible reactions
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refers to the loss of electrons; in the process the oxidized substance releases energy
Oxidation
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refers to the gain of electrons; in the process the reduced substance gains energy.
Reduction
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are always parallel; when one substance is oxidized, another is reduced at the same time.
Oxidation–reduction reactions
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usually lack carbon and are structurally simple
Inorganic compounds
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always contain carbon, usually contain hydrogen, and always have covalent bonds.
Organic compounds
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the most important and abundant inorganic compound in all living systems.
Water
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In a solution, dissolves another substance called the solute.
Solvent
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they dissolve easily in water.
Hydrophilic
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not very water-soluble.
Hydrophobic
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to loosen or break apart
Hydrolysis
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can absorb or release a relatively large amount of heat with only a modest change in its own temperature.
Thermal property of water
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is a combination of elements or compounds that are physically blended together but not bound by chemical
bonds.
Mixture
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The solute particles are large enough to scatter light, just as water droplets in fog scatter light from a car’s headlight beams. For this reason, they usually appear translucent or opaque.
Colloid
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the suspended material may mix with the liquid or suspending medium for some time, but eventually it will settle out. E.g blood
Suspension
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the total number of molecules in a given volume of solution.
Molarity
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separation of inorganic acids, bases, and salts into ions in a solution.
Dissociation
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substance that dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions and one or more anion. Proton donor
Acid
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by contrast, removes H+ from a solution and is therefore a proton acceptor.
Base
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when dissolved in water, dissociates into cations and anions, neither of which is H+ or OH
Salt
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A scale that is based on the concentration of H+ in moles per liter. Also expresses a solution’s alkalinity or acidity
pH scale
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A solution that has more H+ than OH! and has a pH below 7
Acidic solution
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solution that has more OH! than H+ and has a pH above 7.
Alkaline or basic solution
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function is to convert strong acids or bases into Coffee
weak acids or bases. Strong acids (or bases) ionize easily and contrib-
* Urine
ute many H+ (or OH!) to a solution.
Buffer system
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The chemical compounds that
can convert strong acids or bases into weak ones
Buffers
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A buffer system that can compensate for either an excess or a shortage
of H+.
carbonic acid- bicarbonate buffer system
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The chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule
Carbon skeleton
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carbons that are bonded to hydrogen atoms,
Hydrocarbon
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Small organic molecules can combine into very large molecules. Usually polymers
Macromolecules
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large molecule formed by the covalent bonding of many identical or similar small building-block molecules
Polymer.
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the reaction that joins two monomers
Dehydration synthesis
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Molecules that have the same molecular formula but different structures
Isomers
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source of chemical energy for generating ATP needed to drive metabolic reactions.
Carbohydrate
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The three major groups of carbohydrates
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
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The monomers of carbohydrates contain from three to seven carbon atoms. They are designated by names ending in “-ose” with a prefix that indicates the number of carbon atoms.
Monosaccharides
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molecule formed from the combination of two monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis.
Disaccharide
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known as simple sugars.
Monosaccharides and disaccharides
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contains tens or hun- dreds of monosaccharides joined through dehydration synthesis reactions. insoluble in water and do not taste sweet
Polysaccharide
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made entirely of glucose monomers linked to one another in branching chains. The main polysaccharide in the human body
Glycogen
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polysaccharides formed from glucose by plants.
Starches
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polysaccharide formed from glucose by plants that cannot be digested by humans but does provide bulk to help eliminate feces.
Cellulose
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soluble lipid because the proteins are on the outside and the lipids are on the inside.
Lipoproteins
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Used to synthesize triglycerides and phospholipids. Can also be catabolized to generate ATP
Fatty acids
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Contains 1 or more double covalent bonds between the carbon atoms of the hydrocarbon chain
Unsaturated fatty acids
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The most plentiful lipids in your body and in your diet. also known as triacylglycerols.
Triglycerides
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forms the backbone of a triglyceride.
A three-carbon glycerol molecule
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a triglyceride that is a solid at room temperature.
Fat
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fat that mainly con-
sists of saturated fatty acids . mostly in meats (especially red meats) and non-
skim dairy products (whole milk, cheese, and butter), they are also found in a few plant products, such as cocoa butter, palm oil, and coconut oil
Saturated fatty acids
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triglyceride that is a liquid at room temperature.
Oil
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contain triglycerides that mostly consist of monounsaturated fatty acids. Olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, most nuts, and avocados
Monounsaturated fats
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contain triglycerides that mostly consist of poly-unsaturated fatty acids. Corn oil, saff lower oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, and fatty fish (salmon, tuna, and mackerel)
Polyunsaturated fats
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Body’s most concentrated form of chemical energy
Triglycerides
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The head is polar and can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules. The 2 fatty acids (the tails) by contrast are non polar and can interact only with other lipids
Phospholipids
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Molecules that have polar and non polar parts
Amphipathic
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have four ring s of car bon atoms. cholesterol, estro gens, testosterone, cortisol, b ile salts, and vitamin
Steroids
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are lipids derived from a car bon fatt y acid called arachidonic acid.
Eicosanoids
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they modif y responses to hormones, contri bute to the inflammatory response, prevent stomach ulcers, dilate ( enlarg e ) airway s to the lun gs, re gulate bod y temperature, and influence formation of b lood clots, to name just a few.
Prostaglandin
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participate in aller gic and inflammator y responses.
Leukotrienes
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large molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Some also contain sulfur.
Protein
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The monomers of proteins
Amino acids
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Form structural framework of various parts of body. Examples: collagen in bone and other connective tissues; keratin in skin, hair, and fingernails.
Structural function of protein
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Function as hormones that regulate various physiological processes; control growth and development; as neurotransmitters, mediate responses of nervous system. Examples: the hormone insulin (regulates blood glucose level); the neurotransmitter known as substance P (mediates sensation of pain in nervous system).
Regulatory function of protein
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Allow shortening of muscle cells, which produces movement. Examples: myosin; actin.
Contractile function of protein
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Aid responses that protect body against foreign substances and invading pathogens. Examples: antibodies; interleukins.
Immunological function of protein
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Carry vital substances throughout body. Example: hemoglobin (transports most oxygen and some carbon dioxide in blood).
Transport function of protein
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Act as enzymes that regulate biochemical reactions. Examples: salivary amylase; sucrase; ATPase.
Catalytic function of protein
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The covalent bond joining each pair of amino acids
Peptide bond
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. If a protein encounters an a l t e r e d e n v i r o n m e n t , i t m a y u n r a v e l a n d l o s e i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
s h a p e
(secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure). no longer functional.
Denaturation
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In living cells, most catalysts are protein molecules called..
The names usually end in the suffix-ase.
Enzymes
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Some enzymes consist of two parts—a protein portion, called the
Apoenzymes
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nonprotein portion in an enzyme
Cofactor
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Three important properties of enzymes
Enzymes are highly specific.
Enzymes are very efficient
Enzymes are subject to a variety of cellular controls
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How are enzymes highly specific?
Each particular enzyme binds only to
specific substrates—the reactant molecules on which the enzyme acts.
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p a r t o f t h e e n z y m e t h a t c a t a l y z e s t h e
reaction, is thought to fit the substrate like a key fits in a lock.
Active site
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how an enzyme works:
1 T h e s u b s t r a t e s m a k e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e a c t i v e s i t e o n t h e s u r f a c e
of the enzyme molecule, forming a temporary intermediate com-
pound called the enzyme–substrate complex. In this reaction
the two substrate molecules are sucrose (a disaccharide) and
water.
2 T h e s u b s t r a t e m o l e c u l e s a r e t r a n s f o r m e d b y t h e r e a r r a n g e m e n t
of existing atoms, the breakdown of the substrate molecule, or
the combination of several substrate molecules into the products
of the reaction. Here the products are two monosaccharides:
glucose and fructose.
3 After the reaction is completed and the reaction products move
away from the enzyme, the unchanged enzyme is free to attach to
other substrate molecules.
