Bio/ Biochem Flashcards
(233 cards)
1
Q
Post transcriptional modifications
A
addition of 5’ cap and poly A tail on 3’ end in addition to splicing
2
Q
transcription
A
process of synthesizing a mRNA segment from DNA in the nucleus
3
Q
translation
A
synthesis of protein from mRNA (occurs in the cytoplasm in the ribosome)
4
Q
replication
A
process by which one DNA molecule produces two identical DNA molecules (takes place in S phase of cell cycle)
5
Q
S phase
A
part of cell replication in which DNA replicates (occurs between G1 and G2 phases during interphase)
6
Q
G1 phase
A
first part of interphase– cell growth occurs prepping for divide, cell components duplicate (except for the chromatin)
7
Q
G2 phase
A
last part of interphase– cell double checks everything was duplicated correctly, prepares for mitosis/meiosis, continues growth and production of needed molecules
8
Q
Interphase
A
G1 then S then G2 (increases cell size and chromosomal duplication in prep for mitosis/ meiosis)
9
Q
insulin
A
a peptide hormone made in the pancreas; causes the uptake of glucose from the blood by cells (high blood glucose= insulin release)
10
Q
lymph
A
fluid that flows through the lymphatic system (extracellular)
11
Q
prion
A
a pathogenic misfolded protein that is transmissible and can induce other protein misfolding
12
Q
Western blots
A
(SNOW DROP)
detect specific protein in sample
13
Q
Northern blot
A
(SNOW DROP)
detect RNA fragments in a sample
14
Q
Southern blot
A
detects DNA in a sample
15
Q
How does PCR work
A
a segment of DNA is heated to denature it then Taq polymerase synthesizes two new stands of DNA (creates many copies)
16
Q
active transport
A
movement of molecules against their gradient with input of energy
17
Q
facilitated diffusion
A
transport of molecules along conc gradient through transport proteins
18
Q
Vasopressin (Anti Diuretic Hormone)
A
(peptide hormone made by the hypothalamus stored in PPG)
senses high blood osmolarity–> inserts aquaporins –> causes water to be reabsorbed back into the blood
(red. plasma osmolarity and urine production)
MNEMONIC: Always Drilling Holes
19
Q
aldosterone
A
steroid hormone released by the adrenal cortex
triggered by low blood volume in afferent arteriole –> increases Na/K pump activity –> causes increase water flow out of cell to balance solutes
(increases blood volume)
MNEMONIC: Al Da Sodium
20
Q
Sodium Potassium pump
A
“PumpKiN”
active transporter that pumps 3 Na out of cell against gradient and 2 K into the cell against gradient
(net movement of 1 ion out of cell)
helps maintain blood osmolarity and membrane potential (req ATP input)
21
Q
agranular leukocytes
A
monocytes and macrophages (can differentiate into osteoclasts)
22
Q
osteoclasts
A
break down bone tissues to increase blood calcium levels (stimulated by parathyroid hormone PTH— suppressed by calcitonin)
23
Q
leuokocytes
A
white blood cells
24
Q
granular leukocytes
A
basophils, neutrophils, and eosinophils
contain lysogenic enzymes
25
basophils
granular white blood cells, present in lowest quantity, mediate allergic responses
26
neutrophils
granular white blood cells; most common; 1st responders- ingest bacteria (particularly those marked with antibodies) by phagocytes
27
eosinophils
type of granular wbc; mediate allergic response and respond to parasitic infections
28
monocytes
type of WBC that signal other WBC to help treat injury/ prevent infection
two types: macrophages and dendritic cells
29
macrophages
type of monocyte WBC that ingests dead cells, breaks down pathogens by phagocytosis and displays antigen on cell so the adaptive immune system can recognize them
(remove apoptotic cells)
30
How does our body know not to attack out own cells during an immune response
Our body cells feature an MHC 1 complex which signals T killer cells to not attack
31
dendritic cells
type of monocyte WBC; breaks down pathogen by phagocytosis and displays the antigen (activates T cells)
32
natural killer cells
attack cells not presenting the MHC 1 complex
33
lymphocytes
part of the adaptive immune response include T and B cells which mature in the bone marrow and are found in blood/ lymph tissue
34
Helper T cells
recognize (intruders) antigens presented by MHC II complex and activates immune response
35
cytotoxic T cells
recognize antigens containing the MHC 1 antigen but are turned bad/ not wanted
ex. when our body produces tumors these cells show that they are meant to be in our body (MHC 1) but we rlly don't want them --> apoptosis
36
supressor T cells
dampen immune response to prevent tissue damage from uncontrolled inflammation
37
B cells
mature in bone marrow; create antibodies
38
active antibodies
antibodies which the B cell has been trained to make
39
passive antibodies
passed to person by someone else (ex. mother passing antibodies to babies)
these antibodies do not trigger an immune response
40
codominant inheritance
both alleles are expressed simultaneously (ex. Blood typing both A and B are expressed as AB)
41
innate immune system
originate from myeloid stem cells; fast response, recognize common pattens but do not form memories (macrophage, NK cell, monocyte, neutrophil, eosinophil, basophil, dendritic cells, and mast cells)
42
adaptive immune system
originates from lymphoid cells; slow initial response but forms memory to increase response time on second exposure to pathogen (B cells/ T cells)
43
cooperative binding
creates S shaped graph; as one subunit binds it increases affinity for substrate
44
CADET
to decrease oxygen binding affinity
incr CO2
Incr Acidity (decr pH)
incr DGP
Incr exercise
incr temp
45
erythropoietin
makes red blood cells
released by kidneys to bone marrow causes erythroblast to erythrocyte
(removed by spleen)
46
albumin
major osmoregulatory protein, carries hormones through the blood
47
fibrinogen
in its inactive form, activated by thrombin to make fibrin which allows blood clotting
48
coagulation
clotting
49
hemophillia
one clotting factor missing; stops prothrombin which stops thrombin production (stops fibrin from being made) aka no clotting
50
thrombocytes
platelets (stim by thrombopoiten) --> involved in blood clotting
51
What is usually in urine
DUMP the HUNK
(hydrogen, urea, nitrogen, and ions like potassium)
52
glomerus
1st part of nephron; filters plasma to produce filtrate (reg protein in urine-- capillaries prevent large molecules from entering filtrate)
53
Bowmans capsule
participates in the filtration of blood from the glamorous capillaries
54
Distal and proximal convoluted tube
isotonic to the blood; where reabsorption and secretion occurs (usually only deals with smaller molecules bc it is after the glomerus)
55
GI tract hormones (Garlic Cloves Smell Exquisite)
gastrin
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Secretin
Enterogastrone (gastric inhib peptide)
56
Hormones that increase blood glucose (STENGG)
-somatotropin (growth hormone)
-Thyroid hormones (thyroxine & triiodothyronin)
-Epinephrine
-Norepinephrine
-Glucagon
-Glucocorticosteroids
57
menstrual cycle "FOL(d) M(a)PS
Ovarian cycle: follicular phase, ovulatory phase, Luteal phase
Menstrual cycle: Menstrual flow, Proliferative phase, Secretory phase
ovarian phase controls menstrual cycle
day 0- menstrual flow starts
day 14- luteal and secretory phase begin and last till day 28
(cycle repeats)
58
Luteal phase
day 14-28-- prepares uterus for pregnancy by thickening uterine lining
LH decrease
estrogen and progesterone increase
59
follicular stage
day 0-14 pituitary gland hormones stim production of follicles on ovary
estrogen rises
LH increases at end
FSH increases (2 peaks)
60
hexokinase
phosphorylates glucose in glycolysis to trap it in cells
61
glucokinase
in liver and pancreatic beta cells; responsive to insulin; phosphorylates glucose
62
Phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK-1)
rate limiting step of glycolysis (irreversible step)
63
PFK 2
produces F2,6-BP in glycolysis which activates PFK 1
64
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
produces NADH (in glycolysis)
65
enzymes involved in irreversible rxns in glycolysis
glucokinase/ hexokinase, PFK1, and pyruvate kinase
66
native PAGE
analyzes protein in its folded state
67
SDS-PAGE
uses detergent to break all NONCOVALENT interactions and analyzes non folded state
68
structural proteins
generally fibrous; include:
collagen, keratin, elastin, actin, and tubulin
69
motor proteins
capable of force generation through a conformational change
(myosin, kinesin, dyenin)
70
cell adhesion molecules (CAM)
bind cells to other cells or surfaces (cadherins, integrals, selectins)
71
ion channels
regulate flow of ions in/out of cell (ungated, voltage gated, and ligand gated)
72
enzyme linked receptors
participate in cell signaling through extracellular ligand binding and initiates secondary messenger cascades
73
G protein coupled receptors
have a membrane bound protein associated with G protein; initiate second messenger systems
74
ligase
enzyme involved in joining of two large molecules; catalyzes the formation of a phosphodiester bond between adjacent Okazaki fragments
75
isomerases
catalyze the interconversion of isomers (constitutional and stereo)
76
lyases
enzymes that catalyze the cleavage without addition of water or transfer of electrons (rev rxn is synthesis)
77
hydrolases
catalyze cleavage through the insertion of H2O molecule
78
oxidoreductases
catalyze the oxidation-reduction reactions that involve transfer of electrons
79
transferases
enzymes that more a functional group from one molecule to another
80
competitive inhibition
inhibitor binds (reversibly) to active site of enzyme causing increase of Km and no Vmax change
(looks like an angled X on a graph)
81
noncompetitive inhibition
inhibitor binds to an allosteric site; no Km change; decreases Vmax
(graph looks like an angled V)
82
uncompetitive inhibition
inhibitor binds to enzyme susbstrate complex
decreases Km and Vmax
(graph looks like two parallel diagonal lines)
83
loop of henle
part of the nephron which serves to concentrate urine (conc increases as it descends--impermiable to sodium and decreases as it ascends-- absorbs filtered sodium)
84
vasa recta
capillary beds surrounding the loop of hence (blood travels from the afferent arterioles through the glomerus and into the efferent arterioles to the vasa vesta)
85
hyperventilation effects
decrease in blood co2 which causes the pH to increase as H+ ions are lost due to the shift of the bicarbonate buffer
86
hematocrit
volume percentage of red blood cells (erythrocytes) in the blood
87
oncotic pressure
the "sucking" pressure of solutes as they try to draw water into the bloodstream (concentration dependent)
88
hydrostatic pressure
force per unit that blood exerts on vessel walls (independent of concentration)
89
erythrocyte
red blood cell; oxygen carrying component of the blood (contains Hemoglobin which can bind up to 4 oxygen molecules)
90
HDL
High Density Lipoprotein causes increased cholesterol recovery from the blood and delivers some cholesterol to the tissues like the liver (incr HDL = incr cholesterol in tissues- decr in blood)
91
HMG-CoA reductase
3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG) CoA reductase catalyzes the rate limiting step of de novo cholesterol synthesis in liver (and 10% in small intestine)
incr HMG-CoA reductase = decr cholesterol in tissue
92
glucagon
peptide hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas; regulates blood glucose (stimulates glucose production in the liver to raise blood conc and lowers cholesterol levels)
93
De novo synthesis of cholesterol
the process of making cholesterol, driven by ATP and NADPH (regulated by glucagon and catalyzed by HMG-CoA reductase)
94
ketone bodies
synthesized in ketogenesis in the liver; used as an energy source when glucose is not available (made from fatty acids)
ex. acetone; acetoacetate; B-hydroxybutate
***levels incr during fasting
95
metabolism response to long term starvation
brain reduces glycolysis and begin metabolizing ketone bodies (protects proteins from being broken down for gluconeogenesis)
(glucagon and epinephrine levels are elevated during starvation)
96
betaoxidation
oxidation of free fatty acids from adipose tissues when they enter the liver to produce many acetyl CoAs
97
brain energy source
main source is glucose; after fasting there brain switches toward using ketone bodies (similar to what the heart does)
98
lactose is broken into what simple sugars
glucose and galactose
99
cholesterol impact on the plasma membrane
plasma membranes with increased cholesterol content are more stabilized as cholesterol stabilizes adjacent phospholipids and occupies the space between them making them more rigid
(increases fluidity at low temps and decreases fluidity at high temps)
100
voltage gated ion channels
open in response to a change of voltage across the membrane allowing ion flow
101
ion gated channel
these channels open in the presence of a certain ion and allow for flow through the membrane
102
103
endocytosis
method by which materials from outside the cell can enter (reverse of exocytosis)
104
plasma cells
derived from lymphocytic lineage (B cells turn into plasma cells when bacteria/viruses enter the body)
plasma cells make antibodies to fight bacteria and viruses, stopping infection and disease
105
penetrance
likelihood the gene will be expressed if present (ex. will freckles be present or not present)
106
expressivity
to degree to which the phenotype is expressed (ex. varying amount of freckles)
107
translocation
the exchange of pieces of genes between SEPARATE chromosomes (would result in some genes missing from one gene and extra in other)
108
inversion mutation
segment of DNA is reversed within the chromosome (all genes present but in different order)
109
cells of myeloid origin
monocytes (macrophages and dendritic cells), granulocytes (eisonophils/ basophils/ neutrophils), erythrocytes, and platelets
110
cells of lymphocytic origin
B cells (and plasma cells), T cells, and NK cells
111
oxygen is the ____ in the ETC and _____ where as electron transporter are _____
final e- acceptor (GER); reduced
oxidized (NADH donates electron to become NAD+ LEO)
112
transcription factor
-proteins involved in the process of converting/transcribing DNA to RNA
-have a DNA-binding domain that allows it to bind to a regulatory nucleic acid sequence in a gene to alter transcription
(not unique in that they end up in nucleus other proteins can as well)
113
Carnitine palmitoyltransferase I
an enzyme in the liver that is essential for fatty acid oxidation (metabolizing fats for energy)
114
carboxylase
an enzyme which catalyzes the addition of CO2 molecule to a substrate O-C=O
115
which amino acids can be phosphorylated (3)
serine (S), threonine (T), tyrosine (Y)
aka the three amino acids with hydroxyl groups in their R groups
116
henrys law
C=kP
C= concentration of dissolved gas
k= henrys law constant
P= partial pressure of gas
**can also be written as S=kP where S= solubility of gas
117
ghrelin
peptide hormone secreted by the stomach and small intestine to stimulate appetite (tummy is GHRowling)
*high ghrelin levels when blood glucose/ insulin levels are low
118
leptin
peptide hormone secreted by adipose tissue to repress hunger (Lemme put it in a TIN)
*high leptin levels = high insulin/ blood glucose
119
giantism
caused by the production/ secretion of too much growth hormone (GH)
120
ribosomal subunit size in Svedberg for prokaryotes
30S and 50S for a total size of 70S
121
ribosomal subunit size in Svedberg for Eukaryotes
40S and 60S for a total size of 80S
122
aminoacyl transferase
enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of tRNA from site A-->P--> E in the large ribosome subunit during translation
123
antagonist
a substance which interferes with or inhibits the physiological action of another; substance usually binds to the receptor without activating it thus decreasing its ability to be activated
ex. if enzyme one increases heart rate and an antagonist of it is introduced the heart rate will not increase it will decrease/stay const)
124
agonist
a substance which mimic the action of the signal ligand by binding to the receptor
ex. when patients lack serotonin they are given ssris which are serotonin agonists and activate the serotonin receptors to cause response
125
serotonin
neurotransmitter that is responsible for feelings of happiness and well-being (regulates mood, sleep, and digestion)
especially aggression!
126
dopamine
a neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention, learning, and the brain's pleasure and reward system.
127
gel filtration chromatography
separates proteins by size ONLY
128
Ion exchange chromatography
separation of molecules by charge usually due to charge of functional groups (uses solute often in liquid form)
129
isoelectric focusing
separation of molecules based on charge specifically their isoelectric point
130
inactive X chromosome (called X-inactivation or Lyonization)
early in female embryonic development one of the X chromosomes in randomly and permanently inactivated in cells other than the egg cell; (ensures each cell as one functional copy of X chromosome like males)
*inactive X chromo is one of last to replicate and its chromatin is more condensed (not highly replicated)
131
law of mass action
equilibrium constant = [products]/[reactants] with each component raised to a power of their stoichiometric coefficient (does not include water as liquid or solvent in eqn)
132
for bile release the wall of the gallbladder _____ and the hepatopancreatic sphincter will ____
contract; relax
this will occur in response to food consumption
133
lipase
breaks down fats
134
peptidase and protease
(breaks down proteins)
proteases are involved in hydrolase activity; breaking the peptide bond
peptidases are a type of protease capable of cleaving the end terminals of peptide chain
135
amylase
breaks down carbohydrates (secreted by mouth and pancreas)
136
nucleases
break down nucleotides
137
bile
a substance made by the liver and stored in the gallbladder; released when the gallbladder contracts and releases bile through the duodenum
bile helps with digestion in the break down of fats to fatty acids
138
extra water not secreted by the urine is secreted by the:
skin and lungs
in the skin as transpiration and in the lungs by humidifying the air as it enters the body
(extracted by the intestine during diarrhea)
139
when the kidney works to conserve water the blood and urine osmolarity:
blood osmolarity decreases
urine osmolarity increases
(incr osmolarity means that there is less water compared to solvents)
140
when a person is dehydrated the osmolarity in the urine and blood
both increase (less water to excrete or absorb in to the blood stream)
141
cardiac output (co) eqn
CO = SV x HR
CO= cardiac output (the amount of blood pumped by heart per minute)
SV= stroke volume (aka volume of blood pumped by left ventricle)
HR= heart rate
142
lactate
produced by fermentation when cells do not have enough oxygen to keep up with their energy need; during exercise this substance accumulates in the blood and increases lactate plasma concentration as well as the osmolarity of venous blood
143
venous blood
deoxygenated blood that flows from capillary bed vessels within the tissues to progressively larger veins to the right side of the heart
144
blood pathway
superior vena cavity--> right atrium -- (through tricupsid valve)--> right ventricle --(through pulmonary valve)--> lungs --> left atrium --> left ventricle --> inferior vena cava --> aorta --> rest of body [repreats]
veins carry deoxygenated blood from body to right side of heart
arteries carry oxygenated blood from left side of heart to body
145
reverse transcriptase
enzymes in retroviruses that converts the viral genome from RNA back to DNA
(viruses like HIV)
146
how does an enzyme catalyst affect a reaction (on graph)
the activation energy (big hump) will be lowered but the free energy of the reactants and products will stay the same (delta g isn't affected)
147
microglia
microglia are phagocytotic innate immune cells specific to the BRAIN
148
mast cells
part of the innate immune response; engulf foreign pathogens, especially parasites; can also present antigens to T-cells (less common)
149
desmosomes
intercellular junctions that function as anchors to form strong sheets of cells
150
tight junctions
intercellular junctions that prevent the movement of solutes within the space between adjacent cells (ex. involved in blood brain barrier)
151
gap junctions
intercellular junctions that provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells
152
intercalated discs
specialized intercellular junctions between cardiac muscle cells that provide direct electrical coupling among cells
153
amber codon
stop codon (ex TAG which is then coded as UAG)
154
endosomes
a membrane bound compartment within an eukaryotic cell; transport things from outside the cell
155
non-disjunction
occurs when sister chromatids fail to separate during cell division
(could cause be responsible for failure of gamete to receive a copy of a particular chromosome)
156
linkage
the tendency of DNA sequences that are close together on a chromosome to be inherited together
157
crossing over (recombination)
the exchange on genetic material between homologous (non-sister) chromosomes
(occurs in prophase 1 of meiosis)
158
NMDA receptors
subtype of glutamate receptor
159
acetylcholine
neurotransmitter that plays role in brain functions like memory and body functions
160
GABA
primary inhibition neurotransmitter in brain and spinal cord, produced by beta cells of the pancreas to inhibit alpha cells of the pancreas, stimulate beta cell growth, and convert alpha to beta cells
161
which metabolic processes require oxygen?
Krebs cycle and electron transport chain
162
determining autosomal recessive vs dominant on a pedigree
look at the branch (if avail) where both parents are affected:
-if all offspring affected--> recessive
-if not all offspring affected --> dominant
***recessive usually skips generations after heterosexual and doesn't affect all
***dominant wont skip gens and will usually affect more indiv per gen
163
determining x linked dominant vs recessive from a pedigree
no affected parents yields only affected sons---> most likely recessive
affected dad yields only affected daughters ---> most likely dominant
the linkage can not be confirmed for the recessive and the mech of inheritance can't be confirmed for the dominant but this can help for problems where it asks you to predict most likely option:)
164
how to determine if mech of inheritance is autosomal or sex linked from a pedigree
if the ratio of affected males to females is almost 1:1 (not showing any extreme prev of just one gender affected) it is most likely autosomal and not sex linked
165
convergent evolution
the evolution in different lineages of structures that are similar or analogous due to similar environments not due to the existence of a common ancestor
166
fitness
the ability to pass genes on or reproductive success
(often seen in trick questions about health and "in shape" individuals who can not reproduce)
167
selection by differential reproduction
individuals who reproduce more viable offspring are selected FOR
individuals who produce less viable offspring are selected AGAINST
168
natural selection
survival and reproduction of the fittest
169
directional selection
selects for a trait on one extreme
170
stabilizing selection
selects for a trait that is moderate (selects against the extremes)
171
disruptive selection
selects traits that are extremes on both ends (for example in habitats with two extreme niches)
172
group selection
natural selection acting on the group not the individual (explains why altruism exists; the sacrifice of the individual for the benefit of the group)
173
evolutionary success
an increase in percent representation in the gene pool of the next generation (ex. if frequency of an allele increases that is evolutionary success for that allele)
174
definition of species
1. to be able to interbreed
2. produce fertile and viable offspring
3. does this naturally
175
polymorphism
different forms of alleles/ trats
176
adaptation
the genetic change in a population caused by natural selection (Darwins ideas not Lamarks)
177
specialization
adaptation of traits to better fill a niche
178
bottle neck
severe reduction in population size (often caused by natural disasters)
**bottle necks incr the affect of genetic drift
179
genetic drift
random changes in allele frequencys (affect increases as population size decr)
180
divergent evolution
same lineage evolving apart to be more different (share common ancestor but now have very different characteristic due to diff needs)
produces homologous structures
181
parallel evolution
same lineage, evolving closer together to be similar using similar mechanisms
182
coevolution
two species evolve in response to each other (often seen in predator prey relationships or host and parasite)
183
gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
released by the neurons in the hypothalamus and stimulate the pituitary gland to produce LH and FSH
184
endocrine axis: reproductive axis
regulated by GnRH
185
endocrine axis: stress axis
regulated by glucocorticoid hormones like cortisol
186
endocrine axis: growth hormone
regulated by growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) which stimulates the release of growth hormone (GH)
187
growth hormone
produced in the hypothalamus; secreted by the anterior pituitary gland (promotes growth and raises blood glucose as somatotropin)
188
endocrine axis: thyroid axis
regulated by thyroid releasing hormone (TRH)
189
primase
catalyzes the binding of RNA primers to DNA via phosphodiester bonds
190
helicase
catalyzes the separation of the parent DNA strands at the origin of replication
191
topoisomerase
relaxes supercoiled DNA ahead of the replication fork
192
alternative splicing
*only in eukaryotes
cellular process in which exons from the same gene are joined in different combinations leading to diff but related mRNA transcripts
193
calcium and muscle contractions
calcium triggers contraction by reaction with regulatory proteins that in the absence of calcium prevent interaction of actin and myosin (incr Ca+ = incr force of contraction)
194
calcium functions in the body
blood clotting, muscle contraction, activation of enzymes, and cellular communication (parathyroid gland is main receptor and control center for blood calcium levels)
195
parathyroid hormone
released by the parathyroid gland; increases the blood calcium level-- stimulates osteoclasts to break down bone and release calcium into the bloodstream
196
Complex 1 electron carrier
NADH donates to complex 1
197
complex 2 electron carrier
FADH2 donates to complex 2
198
which ETC complex can break
if complex 1 or 2 breaks electrons can still be passed down the chain in lower amounts; but if complex 3 or 4 break then the etc can not continue
***ATP synthase is not complex 4
199
DNP
reduces efficiency of ETC energy synthesis; uncouples ETC and ATP synthase
200
how does histone acetylation affect transcription
it leads to transcriptional activation by modifying chromatin structure and decreasing coiling
(methylation on the other hand can have either an activating or repressing affect)
201
adrenal medulla
part of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system only; secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine (comes from the ectoderm)
202
ectoderm develops into
PNS, adrenal medulla, melanocytes, facial cartilage
203
endoderm develups into
digestive tube and respiratory tube (liver and pancreas)
204
mesoderm develups into
heart, kidneys, skeleton, adrenal cortex
205
allosteric inhibition
involves binding to a site other than the active site on an enzyme
206
energy derived from the Krebs cycle in the form of
ATP which directly supplies energy for many cell processes and NADH which supplies energy for the ETC
207
osmotic pressure eqn
osmotic pressure = i*RMT
(i= vant hoff factor; M= molar conc; R= gas const; T=temp in K)
osmotic pressure is proportionate to M
208
phosphoglucose isomerase
enzyme involved in glycolysis
(catalyzes the reversible isomerization of glucose-6-phosphate to fructose 6-phosphate, which is the second step in glycolysis)
209
Restriction enzymes will recognize what type of sequences
Restriction enzymes recognize palindromic sequences in DNA, meaning the sequence read 5’ to 3’ of one strand is the same as the sequence read 5’ to 3’ of the complementary strand
ex: 5' CTAG 3'
5' CTAG 3'
only two bases would be recognized (CT) because they are the only ones that "match"
210
succinate dehydrogenase
the other name for complex ii in the ETC (deals with FADH2)
ALSO enzyme of the citric acid cycle that forms FADH2
211
ubiquinone oxidoreducatase
other name for complex 1 in the ETC (deals with NADH)
212
ubiquinol-cytochrome c oxidoreductase
other name for complex 3 of the ETC
213
cytochrome c oxidase
other name for complex 4 in the ETC
214
Succinyl-CoA synthetase
enzyme in the citric acid cycle which produces succinate and CoA from Succinyl-CoA (also accompanied by the phosphorylation of ADP/GDP to ATP/GTP)
215
Succinate dehydrogenase
enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of succinate to furmate
216
Can I Keep Selling Seashells For Money Officer?
citrate
isocitrate
a-ketoglutarate
succinyl-CoA
succinate
Furmate
Malate
oxaloacetate
217
imprinted gene
imprinting means that the gene is silenced and the gene from the other parent is expressed
218
direction of protein synthesis
synthesis of protein is unidirectional; amino acids are added to the C-terminal end
219
RNA viruses replicate by:
can replicate by RNA dependent RNA or DNA synthesis:
In RNA dependent RNA synthesis: virally encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) catalyzes the replication of RNA from viral RNA template
In RNA-dependent DNA synthesis: reverse transcriptase, a DNA polymerase, transcribes single-stranded RNA into DNA, which then acts as a template for the synthesis of new viral RNA
220
optimal enzyme temp
37 degrees celsius
310 degrees K
221
C to K conversion
1 C= 273 K
222
epithelial tissue
cover the outer surfaces of the body and the lumen of internal organs (responsible for mucous secretions to inhibit microbial infections)
223
smooth muscles
found in hollow organs; under autonomic control; has no striations due to lack of sacromeres; help maintain blood pressure due to constant low-level contraction of blood vessels
(ex. the walls of bronchi and bronchioles to regulate the flow of air into the lung)
224
sarcoplasmic reticulum
complex network of specialized smooth ER; transmits electrical impulses as well as stores calcium ions (takes up ions from cytoplasm) releases Ca to cause muscle contraction
225
nervous tissues
made of specialized cells to receive and transmit electrical impulses from specific areas of the body and send to other locations (organized in nerves)
(nervous tissue regulate the function of cells within the respiratory tract to maintain homeostasis)
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connective tissues
provides support and shock absorption for tissues and bones throughout body
matrix of living cells and non living substances (ground substance)-- collagen fibers gives it strength; elastin fibers gives it flexibility; reticular fibers are made of thin collagen to support tissue and connected organs
227
high blood osmolarity = _______ fluid in tissues
low blood molarity = _______ fluid in tissues
high blood osmolarity = decrease fluid in tissues
low blood osmolarity = increase fluid in tissues
**fluid flows from an area of low osmolarity to an area of high osmolarity (incr osmolarity means more things in the blood compared to fluid content)
228
constipation is caused by
less fluid in the intestines (this could arise when the osmotic pressure of the intestines decreases and more water is absorbed from the intestines)
229
diarrhea is caused by
more fluid in the intestines
(this could be due to unabsorbed nutrients in the intestines-- incr osmotic pressure-- which would inhibit water/ electrolyte absorption from the intestines)
230
osteoblasts
cells that form new bones and grow/ heal existing bones; cause decrease blood calcium levels
regulated by thyroxine (hormone secreted by the thyroid gland)
231
calcitonin
hormone produced by the thyroid gland to regulate calcium levels in the blood by decreasing it (opposite of PTH)
suppresses osteoclast activity and causes increased Ca excretion in urine
232
feedback inhibition
process by which the end product of a reaction inhibits the enzyme that carries out the reaction
233
order in which filtrate passes through nephron:
Bowmans capsule--> proximal tubule --> loop of Henle (descending then ascending) --> distal tubule --> collecting duct
