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Bio Midterm Flashcards

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1
Q

Two kinds of organisms

A

1.Organisms are made of cells-Smallest unit of life
Unicellular and Multicellular

Unicellular organisms-one cell
Amoeba and E.coli

Multicellular organisms-many cells
Galbladder and animals

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2
Q

Cell Reproduce by Cell Division in unicellular and multicellular organisms

A

Unicellular organism
New cell are produced from old cells- cell division

Multicellular organisms
Cell division is important for creating body shapes

a.Start w/ a single cell-egg
Cell division

b.Embryo
Cell division and body shape formation

c.An actual thing

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3
Q

How do organisms Use and Transform Energy (plants and Animals) and what is Metabolism

A

Plants use sunlight-food
-Light energy-chemical energy

Animals use food-muscle movement
-Chemical energy-physical energy

Metabolism-set of chemical reactions
-Creation or breakdown of molecules
-Energy transforms into another form
-Breaking food molecules into nutrient molecules->eventually leads to muscle movement and energy

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4
Q

What are organic molecules? Give examples and why do we need them?

A

Organic Molecules
molecules containing carbon produced by living organisms

Carbs-sugar, starch
Lipids-fat
Protein-muscles, hair, enzymes, nails
Nucleic Acids-DNA

We need O.M to maintain body function

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5
Q

what do all organisms originate from?

A

4 billion ago all species were unicellular in the water

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6
Q

Definition of Biology

A

Biology-The scientific study of living organisms

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7
Q

what is an atom?

A

Atoms-smallest unit of matter

Unit that cannot be broken down by chemical methods

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8
Q

What is a Chemical Element and name some important ones?

A

Different types of atoms
Different atomic numbers and chemical properties
C.E most important elements for living organism:

H-Hydrogen-1
C-Carbon-6
N-Nitrogen-7
O- Oxygen-8

***Remember the letters
Na-sodium
K-potassium
P-phosphorus
Cl-chloride

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9
Q

Explain Protons,Neutron, Electrons, Atomic Number and Atomic Mass. And how to calculate them

A

Atomic Number-# of protons
-Protons-positive charged (+)
-Electrons- negatively charged (-)
-Normally- # of protons= # of electrons
-Atomic mass= # of prot and neut

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10
Q

What is an Isotope and give examples

A

Same element and atomic number
Diff mass cuz they have have diff # of neutrons

Most (99%) of carbon found in nature=Carbon 12-6 neutrons
(1%) Carbon 13 –7 neutrons
(very rare) Carbon 14-radio isotope (when broken down->radioactive)-8 neutrons

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11
Q

Explain how electron shells work

A

Passage of electrons around nucleus
Atoms can have many electron shells

Inner shell can only handle 2 electrons
Outer shells can have 8 electrons

The outermost shell determines if chemical bonds are formed
Full-> no chemical bonds
Not Full-> can form chemical bonds

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12
Q

What are molecules

A

combinations of atoms joined together by chemical bonds

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13
Q

What are inert gasses and give examples

A

atoms that do not form chemical bonds

ex:Helium, neon, argon

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14
Q

Purpose/Function of covalent bond-POLAR and NON-POLAR

A

Its strong cuz atoms are sharing electrons

C.B are indicted with line like H-H: two atoms are sharing one electron
O=O: two atoms share two electrons

Non polar covalent bond
Ex hydrogen and oxygen gas

Non Polar covalent bond-unequal pull of electrons-creates small charge
electrons spend more time in some atoms more than other-making one side positive and one neg

Ex:Water molecule is made of PCB

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15
Q

Purpose/Function of Ionic Bonds (how Na bonds w/ Cl)

A

Na-Outer shell is unstable-1 extra
Cl-outer shell isnt full-it has 7

Na donates its one electron to Cl
Na->Na+=Sodium ion
Cl->-> Cl-=Chloride ion

Now they are attracted to eachother-ionic bond-

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16
Q

Purpose/Function of Hydrogen Bonds

A

Slightly positive hydrogen of polar molecule is attracted to slightly negative atom

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17
Q

What are the properties of Water

A

1.Cohesion
-Hydrogen bonds make water molecules stick together
-Since water is cohesive-in sequoia trees-hole at the top of tree creates a pole where water transports up and evaporates

2.High Surface Tension
-The strong cohesive hydrogen bonds
-Some animals utilizes the high surface tension of water and walk

3.Large Heat Capacity
-Heat from sun->rearranges hydrogen bonds in water rather than increasing its temp
-Makes water relatively constant->perfect environment for other organisms

4.Low Density as a solid
-Ice floats over water-Cuz its less dense
-Animals can walk on it
-Ice insulates water under- Constant temp for fish

5.Good Solvent
-Solvent-a liquid that dissolves other substances
-Solute-substance that dissolves in solvent
-Solution-mixture of solute and solvent

-Water dissolve molecules with charges (like glucose)
-Water also dissolves ions (sodium chloride-table salt)

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18
Q

Difference between hydrophobic and hydrophilic

A

Hydrophilic-dissolves in water
Ions
Polar Molecules

Hydrophobic-doesn’t dissolve in water
Non-polar molecules-Oil

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19
Q

Explain the Ionization of Water and distribution of Ions in Pure Water

A

Small portion of waters molecules dissociate an ionize

Hydrogen ion-
Hyrdroxide ion-

Pure water has equal amount of OH- and H+ ions
# of H+ ions changes depending on the materials dissolved in water

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20
Q

Explain diff forms of hydrogen

A

Hydrogen atom-doesn’t exist by itself bc theres only one electron on the shell

If you add another H atom-> Hydrogen Gas
If you lose the one electron-> Hydrogen Ion-> just a proton

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21
Q

What is Ph? (the 3 classes w/ examples)

A

pH is an indicator of H+ ion

Acidic- more Hydrogen Ions
Soft drinks, Juice, coffee

Basic- more Hydroxide Ions
Soap, Baking soda

Neutral-Pure water
Tap/bottle can vary from slightly basic to slightly acidic
Blood- 7.4

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22
Q

Can carbon and oxygen atoms make connections with other atoms

A

A carbon atom can bond with four other atoms
Thus-carbon has infinite possibilities for new molecules-can connect w/ anything
Second electron shell has 4 electrons-leaves 4 vacancies

oxygen atom, which can bond only to two

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23
Q

explain monomers, polymerization, and polymers/macromolecules

A

Macromolecules (Polymer)
Organic molecules combine to make macromolecules

Monomer-building blocks of macromolecules

Polymerization- Creates macromolecules by combining monomers

look at pic in notes

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24
Q

how are organic molecules used as fuel

A

Many Chemical bonds=fuel

Breaking chemical bonds-> energy released

Why we use propane and methane

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25
What are carbs made and what are they used for?
Made of –Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen They have sugars (monomer) and starches (polymer of sugar) Used for: Fuel Providing structure of the cell
26
What is a Monosaccharide, the different kinds and their properties
Monosaccharide-simple sugar-one sugar unit Glucose-(hexagon-green) -Most common -The sugar that is distributed across your body-blood/sugar levels Fructose-(pentagon-yellow) -Its sweeter than sugar- that why its used for sodas Galactose(blue hexagon) -
27
What is a Disaccharide, the diff kinds and what are they made from?
Disaccharide-Two sugar unit Sucrose -Glucose and Fructose joined together -Table sugar -Commonly found in plants Lactose -Glucose and Galactose joined together -Sugar in milk
28
how to digest disaccharides into energy?
break into monosaccharides->energy
29
What is a polysaccharide and how to digest them into energy also explain what starch is made from and its use
3+ sugar units Organisms use them to store energy To release energy they are broken into simple sugar Starch-polysac. of glucose monomer units Energy storage for plants ex:Corn, rice, potatoes
30
What is glycogen made from and its use
Polysaccharide made in animal bodies -Made with glucose monomer units -Different branching pattern than starch -Short-term energy storage =important for endurance sports -Inside muscles liver, other tissues
31
explain the difference of results in eating high and lower sugar cereal
High sugar goes to blood stream-short term energy -Triggers insulin response (spike)-hormone maintains blood sugar->energy goes down quick Complex carbs- long-lasting energy release -Blood sugar isnt fluctuating-more stable path
32
what are the 3 fates of glucose
1.energy is needed -molecular bonds are broken down->lower energy bonds are formed->fuel for cellular activity 2.energy not needed-short term -turns into Glycogen in liver/muscles 3.energy not needed-long term -turns into Fat High sugar food-obesity problem
33
Explain how polysaccharides can be used for structure in living organisms
Not all Polys are used for energy storage Used for structural support doe living organisms Are not digested by humans- Dietary Fibres
34
What is a digestable fibre and what are its uses?
Non digestible carbs Feel full Keep you regular?? Keep blood-cholesterol lower Made of cellulose-structural carb for plants Also contain many other non-digestible carbs
35
What is the structure of cellulose, its industrial applications and what is chitin
Structure of Cellulose In plant cell wall More rigid than animals bc of cellulose Stay upright Industrial Application Pulp of wood-paper Cotton-clothes Chitin- Cell wall of mushroom and lobster shell Cant digest it
36
what atoms are typically connected to lipids and are lipids hydrophilic/phobic
Mainly made with carbon and hydrogen atom Joined by non-polar covalent bonds-equal pull for electrons Hydrophobic
37
3 types of lipids
Fats & Oils: long-term energy and insulation Steroids: regulate growth and development Phospholipids: form cellular membranes
38
difference between fat and oil
They are basically the same thing Fats: solid at room temp Oils: liquid at room temp
39
main function of fat
long-term energy and insulation
40
what is the structure of fat
Head-glycerol Constant bettween diff molecules Tails-3 fatty acid chains Molecular properties of fat-depends on type of fatty acid chain
41
Explain difference between saturated, unsaturated, and trans fats
Saturated Fats -No doubles bonds-straight and compact -Solid at room temp -Most animal fat-beef, pork, chicken -Some plant fats-palm oil, coconut oil -Saturated fat In diet->increase LDL cholesterol (bad) Unsaturated Fat -One or more double bonds -Makes it bent-more room in between fatty acids -One double bond-Monounsaturated -Two or more double bonds- Polyunsaturated -Liquid at room temp- -oil is usually unsaturated -Increase in HDL cholesterol (good) -Reduce risk of heart disease Trans Fat -Raise LDL, while lowering HDL -In hydrogenated vegetable oil -Hydrogen is added to vegetable oil=saturated fat
42
What is an Omega 3 fat
Type of unsaturated -Human body cant make them -Must take part of diet -Found in-Oily fish and plant seeds -Majority of N.A cant utilize plant-derived Omega-3 fat effectively
43
what is a steroid
lipid with 4 carbon rings Ex-cholesterol, steroid hormone (made from cholesterol
44
what is cholestorol
Part of animal plasma membrane->Helps maintain membrane structure Raw material of Steroid hormone ex:Estrogen and testosterone
45
What is a Lippoprotein and what the controversy between HDL and LDL
Lipoprotein- cholesterol packed in a sphere of phospholipid Low density lipoprotein -Less protein -More fats and cholesterol -LDL sticks to wall of blood vessels ->Increases plaque buildup in BV->Cuts off oxygen to heart-heart muscles die-> Increases risk of cardiovascular disease High density lipoprotein -More protein -Less fats -Associated w/ lower risk of cardiovascular disease -Brings excess cholesterol to liver- removes it from body
46
explain factors that effect blood/cholestorol level Where is majority of cholesterol made?
90% of cholesterol in human body is made in liver cholesterol in diet shouldn’t affect the # of cholesterol that circulates in body Factors that-fat intake, genetic risks, Shrimp is high in cholesterol but low in fat-good
47
how are steroid HORMONES made and what are its functions
Made from cholesterol Regulate sexual development Important for normal development Estrogen -Fem dev -Cognitive function Test -Male dev -Muscle growth
48
what are synthetic steroids
Used to promote muscle growth/sports performance Serious health hazard-banned from sports: Kidney/liver/heart issues Shrunken testicles-low sperm count Stunted growth in teens
49
Functions of Protein
-Structure-nails or hair -Movement-muscle -Nutrient storage-egg white -Defense-antibodies -Transport -Signaling-hormones -Enzyme-facilitate chemical reaction
50
what are enzymes
Mediate all chemical reactions in living organism Ex-digestion:breakdown of starch into glucose Further breaks down into glucose Synthesis of glucose
51
what is an amino acid
-monomer unit protein
52
What is a peptide, polypeptide, and protein
Peptide-two amino acids joined together Polypeptide-many amino acids Just a string of amino acids Protein-polypeptide folded into a function structure
53
why does the shape of a protein matter
Each protein forms a specific shape suited for its function W/out shape proteins cant perform its function
54
What is the primary structure of a protein
Sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain Sequence of amino acids changes its function Changes of sequence also effect secondart, tertiary,etc..
55
What is the secondary structure of a protein
Hydrogen bonds create folds in polypeptide chains Alpha-helix-coil shape Beta-sheet-zig-zag
56
What is the tertiary structure of a protein
Folding and bending of secondary structure to create 3-D structure Made by Hydrogen bonds Covalent bonds Angle of folding determines its function
57
What is the quartiary structure of a protein
Protein formed by 2+ polypeptide Each polypeptide is subunit Protein only function when they have al subunits together
58
How does denaturation of protein happen
Hydrogen bond are weak-extreme environment alter shape and function Like egg-after heating egg white proteinit becomes insoluble to water
59
What are enzymes and substrates and products
-EnzymesClass of proteins that speed up chemical reactions Lactase breaks down lactose into 2 simple sugars Glucose and galactose (which can be broken down in ur body) Substrate-the reactant that enzymes work on Lactose is the substrate of lactase Products-material after chemical reaction Glucose and galactose are products of lactose breakdown
60
how does someone become lactose intolerant
Lactase is needed when babies digest mother's milk Babies produce a lot of lactase Some ppl stop producing lactase after weaning and become intolerant Body cant produce enough enzymes
61
2 types of nucleic acids
DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid Deoxy-lack of oxygen RNA-ribonucleic acid
62
different bases for nucleic acid
DNA-CGAT RNA-CGAU
63
what is the structure of a nucleotides
Phosphate Sugar-pentagon Ribose or deoxyribose Nitrogen containing base (diff types
64
Name key differences between DNA and RNA
RNA-sugar is made of ribose DNA-sugar is made deoxyribose->ribose w/lack of oxygen RNA-> one strand DNA-two strands->double helix RNA-thousand times smaller than DNA Only codes infor for one gene DNA Codes for thousands of genes RNA-middle man of gene expression Transcribed from DNA to RNA to create a copy of the gen RNA is then destroyed DNA-stores genetic info and function as an archive Its protected and cant be destroyed easily in the cell
65
Why does pseudoscience exist
Government cant regulate every product
66
Distinguish myth from facts Make right choice Pseudoscience can cause-health problems or economic loss
67
Explain the importance of null and alt hypotheses
Easier to disprove a negative statement than prove a positive one Rejection of the null hypothesis will support alt (positive statement)
68
what is a testable prediction
Propose a situation that will give a particular outcome if your hypothesis is true
69
Difference between Fact vs Hypotheses vs theory vs law
Facts-observations abt the world around us Hypo-explanation for observations Theory-collection of tested hypotheses Theories lead to predictions Theory is well supported hypothesis Law-detailed description of how smt works (usually w/ math) w/out saying how it works
70
How do hypotheses become theories
by being revised or supported by tests
71
what is cell theory
All organisms are composed of cells All cell come from preexisting cells
72
what is the theory of evolution
Species change over time and are related to eachother thru ancestry
73
limits of the scientific method
Cant work w/ subjective process Artistic and creative processes -This is pretty Religions and faith Moral judgements Science can describe the process of embryo development but cant say when it will become a person Social or ethical issues
74
what should consumers do abt interpreting potential pseudoscience
No conclusion from anecdotes If its too good to be true-like a MIRACLE DRUG Demand scientific data Read the source material instead of news media News media reports that emphasize sensationalism Press relsease by companies and schools are motivated by money Look at academic articles abt the topic Use google scholar
75
Explain the pre-clinical trials for drugs
Purpose-establish scientific base Study subject-human cells, animals, other model organism
76
Explain phase 1 for clinical drug testing
Purpose-safety and determination of dosage+ administration Format-open label Sample-less than 30 Short term
77
Explain phase 2 for clinical drug testing
Purpose- suggest efficacy , determination of side effects Format-randomized double blind Sample-30-100 Long term Long enough to suggest efficacy but not determine it
78
Explain phase 3 for clinical drug testing
Purpose: establish efficacy determine side effects Randomized doubler blinds Sample 300+ Long term
79
What are the two types of cells and give their characteristics
Prokaryotic-bacteria-has DNA/no nucleus Smaller No membrane-bound organelles e.coli Eukaryotic cells-has dna/nucleus Bigger Membrane bound organelle Amoeba Human gall bladder Plant embryo
80
what are structures specific to prok cell
Cell wall- rigid protective layer are plasma membrane Capsule-gelatinous layer outside of cell wall Pili-hair like structures-Important for attaching to other cells Flagellum-whip like projection that propels the cell
80
what are the similarities between the two PROK AND EUK of cells
Both cells have plasma membrane, cytoplasm, DNA, Ribosomes Plasma membrane Separate cell content from the environment Made of phospholipid bilayer Cytoplasm Thick jelly like fluid DNA Molecule that stores genetic info Prok store DNA in cytoplasm Euk stores DNA in nucleus Ribosomes Granular structure in cytoplasm and membrane structures synthesize proteins
80
what are structures specific to euk cell
Two types of membrane bound orgenelles-origated from Membrane-invagination Evolved from big prok and had DNA in cytoplasm surrounded by plasma membrane V Part of plasma membrane caves in V Inner compartments (organelles) are formed Endosymbiosis Symbiosis-2 organisms co-exist and benefit from eachother Cow Endosymbiotic theory-explains origin of bacteria-like oranelles (mitochondria and chloroplast) Mitochondria are derived from bacteria-like organelles
81
what is the structure of a plasma membrane and whats it made out of
phospholipid bilayer Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail-seperates outside world from inside
82
What the name for carbs in the plasma membrane and its purpose
Hydrophilic Sugar chains-tags on cell surfaces provide molecular fingerprints for diff cells Blood types Cancer v non-cancer cells
83
Whats the role of Cholesterol in plasma membranes
Stablizes PM Absent in bacteria, plant or fungi
84
whats the role of Receptor Proteins in PM and explain the process of adrenaline rushes
Detects signal in env Flavor Hormones Light Adreneline is produced by adrenal gland (ABOVE KIDNEY) Acts on targets cells' adrenaline receptors When adrenaline fits in the receptor-> stress response
85
what the role of recognition protein in the plasma membrane
Some protein serve as fingerprints Distinguishes self vs non-self cells
86
role of transport proteins in the plasma membrane (hint:endocytosis)
Passage for molecules to enter cell
87
what is concentration gradient
Different area of a solution have diff concentration of the solute The big the concentration diff->larger concentration gradient
88
what is diffusion
-High concentration of solutes move to low concentration until all gradient is gone In doing so-molecules move down the concentration gradient Oxygen in red blood cell-more oxygen outside goes inside the cell
89
whats the difference between simple and facilitated diffusion
Simple diffusion-small molecules move across the plasma membrane Ex:oxygen. CO2, water (cuz its small) PM repels hydrophilic molecules->cuz of hydrophobic layer Glucose and ions , polymolecules Facilitated diffusion:Cell have transport protein for glucose to enter Moves molecules that cant pass thru PM
90
explain the process of osmosis
Also passive transport Cell cant pass thru V The water in the cell can so V Water moves to reduce concentration gradient V Cell shrinks or expands
91
whats the diff of osmosis in hyper,iso, hypo tonic solutions
Hypertonic Solution: more outside solute Water moves out of cell->shrinks->less concentration gradient Isotonic solution: equal in and out Water movement is balanced Cell stay same size Hypotonic Solution: less outside solute V To equalize concentration->water molecules move into the cell V Cells expand due to influx of water
92
what is cell death/lysing and why/how does it happen
Hypotonic solutions cell bursts open after reaching maximum size
93
why do Plants turn turgid in hypotonic env
Water goes in the cell and feeds it Turgidity necessary for growth and support When plants are dehydrated (hypertonic) they lose rigidity
94
T/F drinking too much or too little water can kill you
true
95
Explain the process of Stomach maintaining acidity thru active transport
Gastric juice helps digestion V Acidity is maintained by proton pump/Proton pump- against concentration gradient V ATP is used as an energy source for proton pump V ATP is used as potable chemical energy in living organisms **Active transport moves it against
96
How are vesicles made
Made by pinching off other membranes
97
What are the two main types of Vesicle-Mediated transport
Endocytosis-vesicles used to importing molecules into cell Exocytosis-vesicles exporting molecules V Secretion-vesicles fuse with PM V discharges material into surrounding
98
What are the diff types of endocytosis
Phagocytosis Cell eating/engulfing other organisms White blood cell eats yeast cell Pinocytosis Cell drinking/intake of particles and liquid Receptor mediated cytosis Incorporate specific types of particles Cell surface binds to signature molecules on the particle Ex:LDL cleared by liver cells Liver cells carry LDL receptors->LDL binds to the receptors->Plasma membrane for vesicles and eats LDL
99
5 major components of Transport vesicles
Nucleus, Lysosome, Rough/Smooth ER, Gogli Apparatus, Mitochondrion, Cytoskeleton
100
role of nucleus in relation to transport vesicles
Genetic control center Nuclear membrane controls entry of molecules
101
role of lysosome in relation to transport vesicles
Garbage disposal and recycles Has digestive enzymes
102
Diff between smooth and rough ER
Rough-has granular ribosomes dots Synthesizes and modifies proteins Produces proteins that are secreted Cell produces antibodies Smooth-looks like coral-doesn’t have ribosomes Synthesizes and modifies lipids Detoxifyies chemical-needs a lot of energy->mitochondria is right next to it
103
role of Gogli Apparatus in relation to transport vesicles
Packages for proteins, lipids and other molecules->shipped out of cell Up view-looks like a bag Side view-bunch of lines Bubbles(transport vesicles) Molecule modified in GA move towards plasma membrane->creates vesicles (pinched off golgi apparatus membranes->move to PM-> goes thru exocytosis
104
explain the process of exocytosis
first molecules are synthesized inside of the ER V then the part of the membrane pinched off as a transport vesicle V Vesicles move from the ER to golgi apparatus V then inside of the golgi apparatus the molecules are modified and the other side of the golgi apparatus V again making transport vesicles and it eventually fuse with the plasma membrane V have the process of exocytosis
105
role of Mitochondrion in relation to transport vesicles
Bacteria-like organelle derived from endosymbiosis Harvests energy from food->generate ATP Has double membrane structure
106
role of Cytoskeleton in relation to transport vesicles
Mesh-like structure Provide structural support and scaffold for cell shape Controls movement for transport vesicles Whiping sperm movement is generated by cytoskeleton
106
role of cell wall in relation to transport vesicles
Rigid supports plasma membrane Support and resistance to water stress
107
role of Vacuoles in relation to transport vesicles
Vacuile hold water, food, waste, pigments, defense against animals Created by invagation
108
role of Chorloplast in relation to transport vesicles
Created from endosymbiosis Photosynthesis Double membranes
109
difference between facilitated diffusion and active transport
facilitated diffusion is a passive process that relies on the movement of molecules along their concentration gradient with the help of transport proteins, active transport is an energy-dependent process that moves molecules against their concentration gradient using energy from ATP.
110
Water molecules form which type of bond with other water molecules?
hydrogen bonds
111
In the formation of salt, the sodium atom
loses an electron to chlorine
112
An atom of iron has the atomic number 26. This means that:
it has 26 protons.
113
An atom can be changed into an ion by adding or removing:
an electron
114
The column of water extending in tubes from plant roots to leaves is due mostly to
cohesion.
115
Carbon usually forms how many bonds with other atoms?
4
116
Saturated fatty acids have _________________ than unsaturated fatty acids, which is why they exist as a ____________ at room temperature.
fewer double bonds; solid
117
Heating inactivates enzymes by ________.
changing the enzyme's three-dimensional shape.
118
The secondary structure of proteins can be
both helical and sheetlike.
119
Scientific study always begins with:
observations.
120
The mitochondrion is found in
plants and animals

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