Bio: The Nervous and Endocrine Systems, Neurotransmitters, Parts of Brain

Question 1

Dendrites 
Soma
Myelin (what is it actually?) 
Schwann cells
oligodendrocyte
Axon hillock 
The impulse is send from what to what?

Answer 1

Dendrites send impulse to soma
Soma is basically where nucleus is and protein is made
Myelin = a CELL and insulator, so can increase speed of impulse transmission (Schwann cells serve as the myelinating cell of the PNS (they literally make the myelin) vs oligodendrocyte is name of myelin in CNS)

and “jumps” over nodes of ranvier -> saltatory conduction
Axon hillock connects soma to axon
impulse send from dendrites to axon terminus and all the way to the synaptic knobs

Question 2

What is the difference b/w unipolar, multipolar, and bipolar neurons

Answer 2

Unipolar -> Looks like soma in middle with regular axon terminal and multiple dendrites (sensory neuron)
Multipolar -> neurons with many dendrites (one we’re used to) (motor neuron)
Bipolar -> neurons with one dendrite (interneuron)

Question 3

What is resting membrane potential and what perspective is it always from? That is threshold when Na+ voltage gated channels and K+ voltage gated channels open? Describe the channels you see in membrane and how this allows for this specific resting membrane potential

What happens when threshold is reached to Na+ and K+ voltage gated channels?

Answer 3

RMP = - 70mV
Threshold is -50mV

NOKIA321
Na+/K+ ATPase pumps out one net positive ion out
Na+/K+ ATPase establishes Na+ and K+ concentration gradients
many pos ions are lost through K+ leak channels (K+ leaks out of cell) (like “K bye”)
end result is that cell is more neg inside than out (-70mV)

in addition to these channels, there is K+ voltage gated channel and Na+ voltage gated channel but these only open when threshold is reached (-50mV) -> **When hit threshold Na channel works right away but K channel delayed, feel effect of Na first and it rushes inside down gradient

Question 4

Depolarization, hyperpolarization, repolarization
Equilibrium potential
What does the action potential look like, using the top 3 terms above?
Impulse is all or nothing

Answer 4

Depol -> move away from rest potential in the pos direction
Hyperpol -> move away from rest potential in neg direction
Repol -> return to rest potential
Equilibrium potential -> potential at which there is no driving force on an ion

Action potential:
Depolarization -> repolarization -> hyperpolarization -> repolarization

Question 5

Why is the impulse unidirectional?
What is the absolute and relative refractory period/ what is open/closed/inactivated? when do they occur?
What happens if add electrode in middle of axon?

Answer 5

Absolute refractory period -> absolutely impossible to fire another action potential, Na+ channels are inactivated, cell is too positive, near Na+ equilibrium potential

Relative refractory period -> possible but difficult to fire a second action potential, Na+ channels are now closed, cell it too neg, further from threshold, near K+ equilibrium potential

The impulse is unidirectional bc of the refractory period which begins when Na channels are inactivated (when membrane potential is repolarizing) and a neuron CANNOT fire another action potential no matter how strong a membrane potential depolarization is bc the voltage gates Na+ channels are inactivated after depolarization. They will not be able to be opened again until the membrane potential reaches the resting potential and the Na+ channels have returned to their “closed” state.

During the relative refractory period (right after the absolute refractory period), a neuron can be induced to transmit an action potential, but the depol required is greater than normal bc the membrane is hyperpolarized

If added electrode to middle of axon, impulse can go in either direction -> neither side is in refractory period

Question 6

Electrical synapses are ___junctions, always/sometimes excitatory, bidirectional, unregulated/regulated
common/rare in nervous system
very important to the organ system(s):

Answer 6

Electrical synapses are gap junctions, always excitatory, bidirectional (either cell can be pre/post synaptic, unregulated
Rare in nervous system, VERY IMPORTANT IN CARDIAC MUSCLE CELLS and smooth muscle

Question 7

Chemical synapse
Are excitatory/inhibitory, 
Synapsin bonds? 
Cytoskeleton filaments? 
How is Ca2+ involved?

Answer 7

Chemical synapse is opposite of electrical synapse
Can be excitatory or inhibitory, normal thing we find in nervous system
Synapsin bonds Keeps cytosketeton filaments and vesicles bound and these synapsin bonds can be broken by Ca2+
- There are Ca2+ voltage gated channel so that only when action potential arrives, can stimulate these voltage gated channels to open, so that Ca2+ (commonly found outside of cell) can go inside to break these bonds

Question 8

What is SSRI (selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitory?
Given: K+, Na+, Cl-, Mg2+, PO4 3-, Ca2+ -> where can the greatest concentration of these be found, inside or outside of neuron?

Answer 8

SSRI -> serotonin can stay in synaptic cleft for longer

Inside: k+, Mg2+, PO43-
Outside: Na+, Cl-, Ca2+
and these ions flow from high to low concentrations once certain channels open

Question 9

*If you want to know how post synaptic cell will respond, what do you need to look at?
What is the difference between an inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitters?
If a neurotransmitter causes entry of chloride into the postsynaptic cell, is the neurotransmitter excitatory or inhibitory?

Answer 9

NEED TO LOOK AT RECEPTOR, NOT NEUROTRANSMITTER -> EX GABA -> has “inhib effects” bc it bind to chlorine receptors
If a neurotransmitter such as acetylcholine is released at neuromuscular junction (b/w neuron and muscle cell) binds to its receptor on post synapic membrane, the receptor opens its associated sodium channel, allowing sodium to flow down its gradient into the cell, depolarizing the postsynaptic cell membrane . If a neurotransmitter such as acetylcholine opens a channel that depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane, the neurotransmitter is termed excitatory
Other neurotransmitters however, have the opposite effect, making the post synaptic membrane potential more negative than the resting potential or hyperpolarized so these neurotransmitters are called inhibitory

Chloride ions are negatively charged so entry into the cell would make the postsynaptic potential more negative, or

Question 10

What does Acetylcholinesterase do?

Answer 10

degrades acetylcholine

Question 11

Neurons make one/more than one NT, and can respond to one/many
T/F: the amount of time neurotransmitter is in synaptic cleft adjusts response
T/F: takes more than one NT to have a significant effect on the postsynaptic cell

Answer 11

Neurons make one NT, and can respond to many
T
T

Question 12

IPSP (inhibitory postsynaptic potentials) and EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential)

Answer 12

See printed out diagram

Get a mini depolarization from lil bit of neurotransmitter dumped to open ex. Na channel (green in diagram) = EPSP
But if dump more and more neurotransmitter to bind and open Na channel (green) then get past threshold and get large action potential peak
Get mini hyperpolarizaiton for chlorine receptor bc Cl-makes membrane potential more neg (red in diagram) =IPSP
But when bombarded with neurotransmitter to chlorine receptor get large hyperpolarization

Question 13

What is idea of summation?
Spatial vs Temporal?
What influences the intensity of a action potential?
Action potential is an all or nothing event

Answer 13

A post-synaptic neuron has many different neurons with synapses leading to it, however, each of these synapses can release neutrotransmitter many times per second. The “decision” by a possynaptic neuron whether to fire an action potential is determined by adding the effect of all of the of the synapses impinging on a neuron, both excitatory and inhibitory. This addition of stimuli is termed summation.
Spatial summation -> add up EPSPs and IPSPs from all the synapses on the post synaptic membrane are summed at a moment in time and majority rules (will tell you if overall excitatory or inhibitory)
Temporal summation -> add up frequent impulses from a single source, so basically a presynaptic neuron fires action potentials so rapidly that EPSPs or IPSPs
Intensity is coded by frequency

Question 14

What happens if an inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase is added to the neuromuscular junction, then the postsynaptic membrane will…

a) be depolarized by action potentials more frequently
b) be depolarized longer with each action potential
c) spontaneously depolarize

Answer 14

B

Question 15

What does afferent/efferent neuron mean? Where do they come from/go and why? Afferent neuron? Ventral root? Dorsal root?

Answer 15

afferent neurons = approaching the CNS from PNS
Efferent neurons = exit CNS to PNS
Dorsal = “enter through doors” and enter CNS
Ventral root = “leave through vents” and leave CNS

1. Sensory info coming into CNS from PNS and carried on sensory neurons = afferent neurons (dorsal)
2. Integration in CNS -> decision making, interneurons (entirely contained within CNS)
3. Motor output (PNS) -> commands sent out to the body and carried on motor neurons (efferent neurons) exiting the CNS

Question 16

What are you able to feel/do if you cut dorsal root and get thumb injury?

Answer 16

If cut dorsal root, you can’t feel thumb but can move it

Question 17

Reflex -> what part of nervous system does it include?
What type of neuron is sensory neuron?
Motor neuron = _____neuron
Sensory neuron =____neuron

Answer 17

rapid integration to avoid potential injury
connects muscle to spinal coral
Sensory neuron is unipolar (weird looking one with head in middle)
For kick flip reflex -> you sense pressure from sensory neuron (afferent neuron), signal sent to spinal cord, and directly to motor neuron (efferent neuron) which causes quad muscle to contract and at the same time sensory neuron also sends signal to inhibitory interneuron which then sends signal to efferent motor neuron to relax the hamstring muscle, both of these actions cause you to kick up

Question 18

Reflex -> what part of nervous system does it include? 
What type of neuron is sensory neuron? 
Reciprocal inhibition (book) 
Motor neuron = \_\_\_\_\_neuron 
Sensory neuron =\_\_\_\_neuron

Answer 18

rapid integration to avoid potential injury
connects muscle to spinal coral
Sensory neuron is unipolar (weird looking one with head in middle)
For kick flip reflex -> you sense pressure from sensory neuron (afferent neuron), signal sent to spinal cord, and directly to motor neuron (efferent neuron) which causes quad muscle to contract and at the same time sensory neuron also sends signal to inhibitory interneuron which then sends signal to efferent motor neuron to relax the hamstring muscle, both of these actions cause you to kick up
This is called reciprocal inhibition

Motor neuron = efferent neuron
Sensory neuron = afferent neuron

Question 19

Dicephalon 
Hypothalamus
Pons
Medulla
Spinal cord
Cerebellum
Midbrain 
Limbic system 
Telencephalon
Corpus callosum

continues on next card

Answer 19

These can be labeled counter clockwise on brain diagram starting from top left

Dicephalon -> forebrain and includes thalamus and hypothalamus

• thalamus contains relay and processing center for sensory info
• Hypothalamus interacts with various parts of brain -> Maintains body homeostasis, contains centers for controlling emotions and autonomic functions and hormone regulation, controls pituitary gland

Telencephalon -> consists of two separate cerebral hemispheres, the cerebral hemispheres are connected by a thick bundle of axons called the corpus callosum
The telencephalon consists of two separate cerebral hemispheres, generally speaking the areas of the left and right hemispheres have the same functions. But the the left hemisphere controls the motor functions of the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere controls those of the left side. The left side of the brain is said to be dom and is responsible for speech, right hemisphere more concerned with visual-spatial reasoning and music.

Pons -> facial movement, balance, posture

Medulla -> basic vital/involuntary functions -> controls autonomic processes such as blood pressure, blood flow, HR, respiratory rate, swallowing, vomiting, cough, hiccup

Spinal cord -> simple reflexes, controls primitive processes such as walking, urination, and sex organ function

Cerebellum -> coordination of complex movement, BALANCE
(damage here result in poor hand eye coordination and balance)

Midbrain -> visual and auditory info, wakefulness and consciousness, startle reflex

Limbic system -> psychological response to emotional stimuli, helps memory storage

Question 20

Cerebrum/Cerebral cortex

Answer 20

*cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the cerebrum
cerebral cortex is an outer layer of gray matter plus an inner core of white matter connecting the cortex to the diencephalon

Cerebral cortex -> divided into 4 lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital with specialized functions)

Frontal lobes initiate all voluntary movement, involved in complex, reasoning skills (judgement) and problem solving

Parietal lobes are involved in sensations (such as touch, temperature, pressure, vibration, etc.) and gustation (taste)

The temporal lobes process auditory (hearing), olfactory sensation and are involved in short-term memory, language comprehension, and emotion

The occipital lobes process visual sensation

Question 21

What makes the brain stem?

Answer 21

Midbrain, Pons, Medulla

Question 22

Epithalamus
Thalamus
Hypothalamus

Answer 22

Epithalamus -> pineal gland secretes melatonin - involved in sleep/wake cycles
Thalamus -> sensory relay station: sensory info come here first then gets distributed, relay info b/w spinal cord and cerebral cortex, EXCEPT: olfactory info (smell goes to olfactory bulbs)
Hypothalamus - (repeated from previous flashcard) interacts with various parts of brain -> Maintains body homeostasis, contains centers for controlling emotions and autonomic functions and hormone regulation, controls pituitary gland

Question 23

*White matter (IMPORTANT)
Gray matter
Memorize where white and gray matter is found in CNS vs PNS

Answer 23

White matter - myelinated portions of the nervous system (axon), cell to cell communication
CNS-brain = tract
CNS- spinal cord = tract/column (looks like outside portion of spinal cord lighter in diagrams)
PNS = nerve (duh)

Gray matter - soma; unmyelinated cell bodies and dendrites; (integration stations)
CNS-deep brain = nucleus (a cluster of neurons in the central nervous system, located deep within the cerebral hemispheres and brainstem)
CNS-brain surface = cortex
CNS- spinal cord = horn (looks inside portion of spinal cord darker in diagrams)
PNS = ganglion (leads to spinal cord)

Question 24

*What does a brocas injury do? Wernickes area injury?

What is a nerve tract?

Answer 24

A brocas injury -> can’t make speech

Wernickes area injury -> can’t comprehend speech
-> Makes yo say what?! Left temporal lobe

CNS is organized in bundles called tracts, or fasciculi. Ascending tracts carry impulses along the spinal cord toward the brain, and descending tracts carry them from the brain or higher regions in the spinal cord to lower regions.

Question 25

Nervous splits into CNS vs PNS then what does PNS split into? Then what does one of those options split into?

Answer 25

CNS vs PNS PNS -> somatic (voluntary control of skeletal muscle) vs Autonomic (involuntary control of glands and smooth muscle) Autonomic -> Sympathetic ("fight or flight") vs parasympathetic ("rest and digest")

Question 26

``` Somatic vs autonomic: Voluntary/invol? What types of organs/tissues involved? What neurotransmitters involved? Excitatory, inhibitory? How does signal get sent from CNS to target in terms of number neurons? ``` Dorsal root ganglion

Answer 26

Somatic -> voluntary, muscles, acetylcholine ONLY, excitatory, single neuron from CNS to target organ and all somatic sensory neurons have a long dendrite extending from the sensory receptor toward the soma, which is located outside the CNS in a dorsal root ganglion Autonomic -> involuntary, all other organs, acetylcholine or norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline) -> For autonomic there are 2 neurons -> one ends in norepinephrine (sympathetic) and the other in acetylcholine (parasympathetic) (either stimulate or inhibit)

Question 27

Acetylcholine vs norepinephrine When, where is epinephrine/adrenaline released?

Answer 27

``` Acetylcholine = parasympathetic, rest and digest Norepinephrine = sympathetic, fight or flight ``` Upon activation of the sympathetic system, the adrenal gland is stimulated to release epinephrine, also known as adrenaline

Question 28

Golgi tendon organs

Answer 28

Golgi tendon organs sense tension in tendons when lift something It responds to increased muscle tension or contraction as exerted on the tendon, by inhibiting further muscle contraction.

Question 29

``` 5 classes of Sensory Receptors: Mechanoreceptors Chemoreceptors Thermoreceptors Nociceptors Photoreceptors/Electromagnetic receptors ``` Where would muscle spindle, O2 receptors, taste buds, olfactory sensors, golgi organs, rods/cones fit?

Answer 29

Mechanoreceptors -> stim by physical shape changes e.g. baroreceptors, golgi tendon organs, touch receptors, muscle spindle (detect muscle stretch) etc. Chemoreceptors -> stimulated by chemicals e.g. olfactory sensors, taste buds are gustatory receptors, pH receptors, O2 receptors, etc. Thermoreceptors -> stimulated by temperature e.g. hot and cold receptors Nociceptors: stimulated by pain free nerve endings that respond to touch, chemicals, heat, etc. Photoreceptors/Electromagnetic receptors: stimulated by light e.g. rods and cones

Question 30

Absolute threshold | Difference threshold

Answer 30

Absolute threshold -> MINIMUM stimulus required to trigger a receptor ex. Dog has lower absolute threshold and can smell better Difference threshold -> amount of change that is required to occur before we notice it ex. you forgot you were wearing clothes bc no change detected. The minimal noticable difference b/w any two sensory stimuli

Question 31

Sensory Adaption Bottom-Up processing Top-Down processing

Answer 31

Sensory Adaption -> is a decrease in firing frequency when the intensity of a stimulus remains constant, ignore unchanging stimuli, can be retriggered if stimulus change Bottom-Up processing -> 1. Sensory receptors register info 2. Sensory neuron send info to the bran 3. Brain identifies the info Top-Down processing 1. Brain applies prior knowledge and experience 2. Forms a holistic view of what's going on

Question 32

Iris Lens Cornea Pupil

Answer 32

Iris -> colored part of eye. regulates the diameter of pupil Lens -> biconvex structure that focuses light on the retina Cornea -> external transparent layer of eye Pupil -> black opening in middle of eye

Question 33

``` Ciliary Muscles Fovea centralis retina optic disk optic nerve ```

Answer 33

Ciliary Muscles -> muscles that regulate the curvature of the lens Fovea centralis -> responsible for extreme visual acuity (highest density of cones) when you look directly at something, you focus its image on the fovea retina -> layer at the back of eye sensitive to light optic disk -> blind spot. Place on retina where optic nerve forms -> Blind spot has many ganglion cells so blocks light and you are blind there optic nerve -> bundle of axons leaving the eye towards the brain

Question 34

Where does the signal go from retna?

Answer 34

Goes to photoreceptors (rods or cones) then to bipolar cells then to ganglion cells then to occipital lobe of cerebral cortex (image processing) No light can pass through region when ganglions are bc blocks

Question 35

Where does the signal go from retna? What happen in dark vs light and on center vs off center?

Answer 35

Goes to photoreceptors (rods or cones) then to bipolar cells then to ganglion cells then to occipital lobe of cerebral cortex (image processing) No light can pass through region when ganglions are bc blocks Bc of the rods and cones depolarization in the dark, both types of photoreceptors release the neurotransmitter glutamate onto the bipolar cells. Upon the absorption of a photon of light and subsequent hyperpolarization, the photoreceptor release less glutamate, or stop releasing it altogether Some bipolar cells are "on center" and are inhibited by glutamate. This means that when the photoreceptor is in the dark and releasing glutamate, the on-center bipolar cell releases very little or no neurotransmitter. However, when the photoreceptor is in the light (light is ON the center), and stops releasing glutamate, the inhibition of the on-center bipolar cell stops, and the bipolar cell increases its release of neurotransmitter. "Off center" bipolar cells work in the opposite manner; they are stimulated by the glutamate released when the photoreceptor is in the dark, and inhibited when glutamate stops being released in the light Dark, on center -> no action potential Dark, off center -> action potential Light, on center -> action potential Light, off center -> no action potential

Question 36

``` Ear terms (know parts of ear) Pinna Auditory canal Typanic membrane Ossicles Malleus Incus Stapes Semicircular canals Cochlea Eustachian tube ```

Answer 36

``` The pinna and auditory canal = outer ear Typanic membrane = ear drum Three small bones -> called ossicles = Malleus, Incus, Stapes Eustachian tube (auditory tube) -> connects throat with middle ear, allows pressure to be equalized ```

Question 37

How do we hear? Perilymph and endolymph? Basilar membrane Tectorial membrane

Answer 37

1. Sound waves go down auditory canal and bounce on timpanic membrane 2. This causes auditory ossciles to vibrate back and forth 3. Which sends waves to fluid in cochlea (the outer structures filled with fluid called perilymph), waves sent to perilymph which then send waves down central region called endolymph 4. Then we get vibration in basilar membrane (supports receptors called hair cells) and movement of hair cells 5. The hair cells are in contact with the tectorial membrane (stationary) and cilia of hair cells are dragged across the tectorial membrane 6. hairs get bent and since they are mechanoreceptors, they release neurotransmitter onto auditory nerve 7. Auditory neuron transmits the signal to the brain

Question 38

How do we determine pitch from loudness?

Answer 38

These are determined by which region of basolar membrane that gets stimulated most strongly high pitch tones are high freq and low pitch tones are low freq Thick at “base” and thin at “leaves” like a tree at the beginnign part of basolar membrane, it is very stiff and thick and at end it's thinner, floppy a low freq pitch/tone do not have enough strength to vibrate the thick part of membrane and high freq tone are better at vibrating the thicker beginning part of membrane Depending on which region of basolar membrane is most stimulated, the brain can interpret pitch Loudness is determined by amplitude -> soft sound, small amplitude, loud sound, larger amplitude

Question 39

Semicircular canals | Vestibule

Answer 39

Semicircular canals -> important for rotational equilibrium/dynamic equilibrium ex. 3D space of head, head turning, spinning Vestibule -> important for static equilibrium ex. forward momentum, no spinning but plane of equilibrium shifting when chair you were sitting in started leaning backwards

Question 40

Summary: From sound to Hearing

Answer 40

Sound waves -> auricle -> external auditory canal -> tympanic membrane -> malleus -> incus -> stapes -> oval window -> perilymph -> endolymph -> basilar membrane -> auditory hair cells -> tectorial membrane -> neurotransmitters stim bipolar auditory neurons -> brain -> perception

Question 41

Vestibular complex Semicircular canals Vestibule

Answer 41

Semicircular canals -> important for rotational equilibrium/dynamic equilibrium ex. 3D space of head, head turning, spinning Vestibule -> important for static equilibrium ex. forward momentum, no spinning but plane of equilibrium shifting when chair you were sitting in started leaning backwards

Question 42

Equilibrium potential for K+? *Gray vs White matter? Horn? Tract? Column? Nucleus?

Answer 42

-90mV White matter = myelinated axons in CNS and PNS White matter in brain = a tract White matter in spinal cord = tract or column White matter in PNS = nerve Gray matter = Unmyelinated cell bodies in CNS and PNS nucleus = gray matter in brain Cortex = gray matter on the surface of brain Horn = gray matter in spinal cord Ganglion = gray matter in PNS

Question 43

What is a proprioreceptor? | Muscle spindle?

Answer 43

Proprioreceptor refers to awareness of self (i.e. awareness of body part position) and is known as your kinesthetic sense An important example of a proprioreceptor is the muscle spindle, a mechanoreceptor that detects muscle stretch Other proprioreceptor includes Golig tendon organs which detect tension in tendons

Question 44

extra? Myopia Hyperopia

Answer 44

Myopia -> nearsightedness, too much refraction at the lens or an abnormally long eyeball results in a focal length that is too short Hyperopia -> farsightedness, too little refraction at the lens or an abnormally short eyeball results in a focal length that is too long

Question 45

What does the posterior pituitary do? Anterior? Do they make/secrete hormones?

Answer 45

posterior -> composed of axons which descend from the hypothalamus, these hypothalamus neurons are an example of neuroendocrine cells (neurons which secrete hormones into the bloodstream) doesn't make hormones, it just stores ADH and oxytocin for later release anterior is a normal endocrine gland and is controlled by hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting factors (tropic hormones)

Question 46

``` Basal nuclei (also called "cerebral nuclei" or basal ganglia function? ```

Answer 46

composed of gray matter and located deep in cerebral hemispheres Regulate body movement and muscle tone, coordination of learned movement patterns, general rhythm movements (arm and leg movements when walking) The basal nuclei and cerebellum work together to process and coordinate movement initiated by the primary motor cortex; the basal nuclei are inhibitory (preventing movement), while cerebellum is excitatory

Question 47

Name function of following neurotransmitter(s): Dopamine Seratonin Melatonin

Answer 47

Dopamine -> reward, mood, pleasure, smooth motor movements, focus and attention, shortages can lead to depression, lethargy and difficulty coordinating motion Seratonin -> Mood stabilizer, Mood, digestion, sleep, memory, sexual desire, shortages can lead to: aggression, compulsive behavior, overeating, and depression Melatonin -> circadian rhythm, sleepiness, sleep initiation (melatonin is technically a "neurotransmitter-like substance", shortages lead to insomnia

Question 48

Name function of following neurotransmitter(s): Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) Acetylcholine

Answer 48

GABA -> Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, shortages can lead to stress and anxiety, depression, ADHD, Panic Disorders, etc Acetylcholine -> excitation at neuromuscular junction, parasympathetic nervous system activity Shortages can lead to dysfunction of Gi tract and paralysis

Question 49

Name function of following neurotransmitter(s): Epinephrine (adrenaline) Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) Glutamate

Answer 49

Two similar molecules both involved in fight or flight response, sympathetic nervous system activation (both are hormones and neurotransmitters) Shortages can lead to fatigue, lack of focus, apathy Glutamate -> primary excitatory neurotransmitter in brain, learning, memory, long-term potentiation Shortages can lead to fatigue, low concentration and energy