Psych/Soc: Memory

Question 1

Limbic System -> what does it include?

Where does sensory info go/what happens next?

Answer 1

Thalamus (sensory relay), Hippocampus (memory consolidation getting short to long term, train brain to store info so if damage our already stored memories intact but formed new memories difficult), Hypothalamus (body regulation), Amygdala (fear and aggression responses, vivid memory of trauma bc of how activated amygdala was) and it can communicate with the hypothalamus which controls the physiological aspects of emotion, such as sweating and racing heart, it also communicates with prefrontal cortex (not part of limbic system) which controls approach and avoidance behaviors -the behavioral aspects of emotion

First, sensory info arrives at the thalamus, if there is no need to process further, the thalamus filters out the sensory input

Question 2

Structural vs Functional techniques for imaging

Answer 2

Measurement techniques allow us to measure the function and structure of brain

Function techniques -> measure what brain regions are doing so use PET, fMRI, EEG

Structural Techniques -> Measure what the brain looks like so use MRI, CT Scan

page 270 -272 in psych/soc book for more info

Question 3

Neural Plasticity

Answer 3

Changes in synaptic connections in brain due to learning, thinking, behavior, emotions, etc, Change can occur from cellular level to the anatomical level

Question 4

Long Term Potentiation
What is it and what is it important for?
What does long-term memory storage physically look like?

Answer 4

When something is learned, the synapses b/w neurons are strengthened and the process of long-term potentiation begins
Synaptic strength is thought to be process by which memories are consolidated for long-term memory (so learning can occur)
Connections b/w neurons strengthen and neurons reorient themselves to increase the likelihood of firing within the connectio, leading to an increase in synaptic strength b/w two neurons, increased sensitivity, and increased potential to fire and stronger electrochemical responses to a given stimuli (what “fires together, wires together”
Following brief stimulation, an increase in synaptic strength between neurons leads to increase in electrochemical response to a stimuli due to increased sensitivity (the sending neuron needs less prompting to fire its impulse and release its neurotransmitter), which results in increased potential for neutral firing after a connection has been stimulated

Long-term memory storage involves more permanent changes to the brain:

• > new synaptic connections b/w neurons
• > permanent changes to in pre- and postsynaptic membranes, and a permanent increase or decrease in neurotransmitter synthesis
• > greater branching of dendrites
• > NO CHANGE in number of neurons

Question 5

Encoding, Storage, Retrieval

Answer 5

Encoding -> Transfer of sensations into our memory system

Storage -> Retaining information in short-term or long-term memory

Retrieval -> Extracting info that has been stored

Question 6

Multi-store Model:
Sensory, Short-Term, Long Term Memory
On MCAT, what is another word for Short-Term Memory?

Answer 6

Sensory = the initial recording of sensory info in the memory system, is a very brief snapshot that quickly decay

Sensory input (unattended info lost) -> Short-Term (Do maintenance rehearsal to remember, and unrehearsed info lost) -> Long Term Memory (can have retrieval of this info branches off into Explicit memory (declarative memory and conscious recall) and Implicit Memory (nondeclarative and non conscious recall) -> Explicit memory splits into semantic memory and episodic memory, while implicit memory splits off into procedural memory, priming, and classical conditioning

Info from sensory memory decays rapidly if it is not passed through Broadbent’s filter into short-term memory

Short-Term Memory = Working Memory

Long-term memory is believed to have infinite memory

Question 7

Serial Position Effect

Answer 7

The order in which words were said affects whether you are able to memorize them
Two effects: Primacy Effect (Beginning of list easier to remember) and
Recency Effect (End of list easier to remember)

Question 8

Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory

Answer 8

Central Executive

Then short term memory -> phonological loop, episodic buffer, visuospatial sketchpad

Then goes to longterm memory

Question 9

Episodic memory

Answer 9

Subdivision of explicit memory
autobiographical memory for information of personal importance
Amygdala plays a role here due to intersection of emotions and memories

Question 10

Semantic memory

Answer 10

Explicit Memory that contains factual information which deteriorates first.

Question 11

Procedural memory

Answer 11

Implicit/Procedural memory = Knowledge of how to do something, primarily in the cerebellum. Remains unconscious.

Question 12

Encoding, Storage, Retrieval

Answer 12

Encoding -> Process of turning sensory information into memory
Then get storage and then can retrieve info when want

Question 13

Explicit/Declarative Memory Implicit/procedural memory/non-declarative memory

Answer 13

Explicit or declarative memory involves being able to “declare” or voice what is known (ex. explaining how to shoot a basketball after reading a book about it)
More conscious and active in the hippocampus
Two types -> semantic memory and episodic memory

Implicit or procedural memory refers to conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do something
Remains unconscious
ex. having shot a basket ball before

Question 14

Retrieval Cue

Answer 14

Provide reminders of info
Within the network model of memory, hints may activate a closely related node, making it easier to retrieve the node being searched for
For example, you are shown several red objects then asked to name a fruit so you say apple, also best retrieval cues are often contextual cues that had associations formed at the time the the memory was encoding, such as tastes, smells, and sights

Question 15

Intrusion Errors

Answer 15

Substitution of an often semantically meaningful word during free and serial recall
ex. asked to remember Bear, Wig, and Gate but you say Dog, Hair, and Fence (words related but not perfect recall)

Intrusion errors can also occur in episodic memories when information that is consistent but did not actually occur is appended during memory retrieval. This is due to retrieval of both related episodes and generic info previously stored that is consistent with that type of event (retell story and say the door was red instead of blue)

Question 16

Interference

Answer 16

When competing material makes it more difficult to encode or retrieve information

Can result in failure to retrieve info that is in storage
The passage of time may create more opportunity for newer learning to interfere with older learning, which is especially common if the learned info is similar

Question 17

Habituation

Answer 17

Occurs when response diminishes as the organism becomes accustomed to a repeated stimulus “tune it out”

Question 18

Sensitization

Answer 18

When demonstrate increasing responsiveness to a repeated stimulus or a particularly aversive or noxious stimulus. Sensitization is usually associated with increased arousal

Question 19

Ivan Pavlov
Describe his experiment with the following words: 
Unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus 
Conditioned Response 
Neutral stimulus 
Signaling stimulus

Answer 19

1) Present dog with food (unconditioned stimulus), they begin salivating (unconditioned response)

2) Present dogs with food along with bell (neutral stimulus), they still salivate in response to the food
3) Over time/after conditioning, the bell (is now conditioned stimulus instead of the neutral stimulus like before), will produce salivation (conditioned response) even without food
4) The neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus with it alone can elicit the conditioned response

Signaling stimulus = refers to bell, whether the bell is technically neutral or conditioned

Question 20

Dopamine Reward Pathway:

Where does it begin? Where dopamine released? What other areas related?

Answer 20

The reward pathway begins in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and connects to the nucleus accumbens

Rewards activate this pathway and lead to dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens

Addictive drugs stimulate the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and thus reinforce drug use

Other regions implied in reward -amygdala, hypothalamus

Question 21

Unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus 
Conditioned Response 
Neutral stimulus 
Signaling stimulus

Answer 21

Unconditioned stimulus -> stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response, like a response reflex, not a learned reaction, but a biological one ex. the presentation of food is the unconditioned stim in Pavlov’s experiment and salivation is unconditioned response

Unconditioned Response -> natural response

Conditioned Stimulus -> is an originally neutral stimulus (bell) that is paired with an unconditioned stim (food) until it can produce the conditioned response (salivation) w/o the unconditioned stim (food)
(Neutral Stimulus is paired with this until it creates a response)

Conditioned Response -> Learned Stimulus is paired with this until it creates a response (Learned response to a conditioned stimulus)

Neutral stimulus -> a stimulus that initially does not elicit any intrinsic response. For pavlov’s dogs, this was the sound of the bell prior to the experiment

Signaling stimulus -> the bell, whether the bell is technically neutral or conditioned

bell makes transition from neutral stim to conditioned stim

Question 22

Generalization

Applies to classical or operant conditioning?

Answer 22

Applies to both classical and operant conditioning
Process by which stim other than the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response. So, if the dogs salivate to the sound of a chime or a doorbell, even though those were not the same sounds as the conditioned stimulus, the behavior has been generalized

Question 23

Discrimination

Applies to operant or classical condiitoning?

Answer 23

Applies to both classical and operant conditioning
Opposite of generalization
Conditioned stimulus is differentiated from other stimuli explicitly
Thus the conditioned response only occurs for conditioned stimuli. If the dogs do not salivate at the sound of a buzzer or a horn, they have differentiated those stimuli from the sound of the bell

Question 24

Operant Conditioning
BF Skinner
demonstrated that behavior which is reinforced tends to be ______; behavior which is not reinforced tends to:______

Answer 24

A process in which reinforcement (pleasurable consequences) and punishment (unpleasant) are employed to mold behavioral responses
BF Skinner (one of founders of Behaviorist perspective)
He invented an operant conditioning chamber (the Skinner box) to test how animal behavior can be conditioned with reinforcement and punishment, believed that psychology should focus only on observable behavior, demonstrated that behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out or be extinguished (weakened)

Question 25

Reinforcement & Punishment See diagram for pos/neg reinforcement Pos/neg punishment

Answer 25

(written with Positive & Negative) Reinforcement is anything that increases likelihood of the desired behavior Punishment is anything that decreases the likelihood of the undesired behavior

Question 26

Positive & Negative (operant conditioning) What brain structures are related to negative vs pos conditioning? See diagram for pos/neg reinforcement Pos/neg punishment

Answer 26

(Written with reinforcement and punishment) Positive -> adds something Negative -> takes something away Neg conditoning -> amygdala (makes sense bc this is where trauma processed) Pos conditioning -> hippocampus ex of negative reinforcement os taking away chores

Question 27

Primary (unconditioned) reinforcers/punishers vs Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers/punishers See the diagram for different combos

Answer 27

Primary reinforcers/punishers -> change the response WITHOUT previous learning Secondary reinforcers/punishers -> are stimuli LEARNED to be rewarding or punishers (society taught us that good/bad) Reinforcers = innately desirable, punishers = innately undesirable Ex. Primary reinforcement can be food, affection, etc Secondary reinforcement can be money Primary punishment can be spanking, sprayed with hose Secondary punishment can be losing a job, criminal record

Question 28

Token Economy | World Economy

Answer 28

A system in which behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary reinforcers) and can later be exchanged for desirable stimuli, such as playing time, screen time, or toys A token economy has been found to be very effective in managing some psychiatric disorders and is also regularly used with children both at school and at home ex. money is a special type of token Token economy = Go to school and complete school tasks -> Initial outcome = earn tokens -> Final outcome = exchange tokens for activities and tangible items (toys, games,etc) World economy = Go to work and complete job tasks -> Initial Outcome = Earn Money -> Final outcome = Exchange money for activities and tangible items (e.g. car, house).

Question 29

Fixed vs Variable | Ratio vs Interval

Answer 29

Fixed = consistent/predictable Variable = inconsistent/unpredictable Ratio: number of behaviors b/w delivery or the reinforcer Interval: amount of time in b/w delivery of reinforcer

Question 30

Which combos of fixed/variable and ratio/interval produce the greatest response rates? Which one has the slowest extinciton rate?

Answer 30

Instrumental conditioning studies show that variable-ratio schedules of reinforcement lead to the quickest increase in rate of desired responses. Variable-ratio schedules provide a reward for an ever-changing quota of desired responses. The unpredictability inherent in this schedule prompts subjects to produce the desired response quickly and steadily in constant anticipation of reward. Ratio schedules – those linked to number of responses – produce higher response rates compared to interval schedules. As well, variable schedules produce more consistent behavior than fixed schedules; unpredictability of reinforcement results in more consistent responses than predictable reinforcement Ratio schedules = highest response rates (variable ratio seems best for responses overall) Fixed interval schedule is like an employee learns that their boss only walks in at the end of the hour so she is lazy until the end of the hour comes up Variable interval -> for the worker and boss example, if boss comes in at unpredictable times, the employee will work in a steady, efficient manner throughout the day, but not very quickly bc potential reinforcement is attached to an unpredictable amount of time Variable-ratio has fast response rate and SLOWEST rate of extinction

Question 31

Insight Learning | Latent Learning

Answer 31

Insight learning -> A process in which the solution to a problem suddenly comes to us in what might be described as a "flash of insight" Wolfgang Köhler showed the power of insight learning by conducting studies with chimpanzees in which tempting food was placed out of reach and they were given two boxes, none of boxes were big enough to use alone so chimps ran around angry until in a sudden flash of insight, one would pile the boxes on top of each other, climb up, and grab the banana (book says Insight learning is when previously learned behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways) ex. child figures out he can combine two behaviors to get his toy out from under the bed like sliding on his belly and using a tool to grab the toy Latent learning -> something is learned but not expressed as an observable behavior until it is required ex. if a child in middle school always receives a ride to school from his dad, he may latently learn the route to school, even if he never demonstrates that knowledge. One day, when his dad is on a a business trip, the child is able to navigate to school along the same route by bike

Question 32

Ventral Tegmental Area

Answer 32

The reward pathway begins in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and connects to the ______ (see next card for answer) Rewards activate this pathway and lead to dopamine release in the _______ Addictive drugs stimulate the release of dopamine in the _______ and thus reinforce drug use

Question 33

Nucleus Accumbens

Answer 33

The reward pathway begins in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and connects to the nucleus accumbens Rewards activate this pathway and lead to dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens Addictive drugs stimulate the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and thus reinforce drug use

Question 34

Thalamus

Answer 34

Sensory relay First, sensory info arrives at the thalamus, if there is no need to process further, the thalamus filters out the sensory input

Question 35

Hypothalamus

Answer 35

body regulation

Question 36

Amygdala Cerebellum Prefrontal cortex

Answer 36

Involved in associating emotion with memories, particularly negative memories, for example, a fear response to a dentists's drill involves fear conditioning PRIMARILY associated with negative emotions Cerebellum ->involved in motor skills and conditioned responses (implicit/unconditioned/nondeclarartive memory-> procedural memory/conditioning) Prefrontal cortex -> emotional control (increased activity here means improved emotional control and positive emotionality)

Question 37

Hippocampus

Answer 37

necessary for coding new explicit /declarative/conscious memories (semantic, episodic) into long term memory ex. hippocampus (for longterm memory) not fully developed until 4 so you have no explicit memories before then

Question 38

Levels of Processing Model/Depth of processing

Answer 38

Focuses on depth of processing involved in memory; predicts the deeper info is processed, the longer a memory trace will last More something is thought about, the better it is remembered ex. Easier to remember plot of book than individual words

Question 39

Reminiscence Bump

Answer 39

Older adults generally remember events they experienced from 10 to 30 years old better than any other time period, including more recent time periods

Question 40

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Answer 40

Part of Baddeley model of working memory | Visual and spatial memory

Question 41

Method of Loci

Answer 41

A method of memory retention in which the individual uses visualized spatial info (such as the street on the way to their home) to recall lists of words to be memorized. Also, known as memory journey, memory palace, or min palace -> Move through familiar places and leave visual representations of topics to remember

Question 42

Rehearsal

Answer 42

Overuse of the phonological loop

Question 43

Reconstructive Process

Answer 43

Memory is reconstructive process -> each time a memory is retrieved, the memory trace is strengthened , but also potentially altered

Question 44

Mirror Neurons | Where are they and what do they do?

Answer 44

Found in premotor cortex, primary somatosensory cortex, supplementary motor area, and inferior parietal cortex. Following are hypotheses for function but we don't really know: Connect sight and action of a movement. help us understand actions of others and learn though imitation, Responsible for vicarious emotions such as empathy. Involved in observational learning.

Question 45

Vicarious Emotions

Answer 45

ex. empathy | Mirror neurons may be responsible for this

Question 46

Semantic Networks, nodes, associations What is response threshold?

Answer 46

knowledge base that represents semantic relations between concepts in a network Information is stored in long-term memory as an organized network. In this network exists individual ideas called nodes and connecting these nodes are associations Searching through memory is the process of starting at one node and traveling the connected roads until one arrives at the idea one is looking for All memories are in essence, neural connections -> A node does not become activated until it recieves input signals from its neighbors that are strong enough to reach a response threshold and this threshold is reached by the summation of input signals from multiple nodes

Question 47

What is Spreading Activation? What determines the strength of an association?

Answer 47

Activation of a few nodes leading to an activation pattern within the network that spreads outward. We do not choose where to go next, but rather that activated node spreads its activation to other nodes around it to an extent related to strength of association b/w that node and others. Reason why hints can be helpful at arriving at the correct conclusions. The strength of the associations b/w nodes is related to how frequently and how deeply the connection is made, processing of material in different ways leads to the establishment of multiple connections

Question 48

Priming | Positive and negative

Answer 48

Prior activation of specific nodes and associations Occurs when exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another stimulus, positive priming speeds up processing ex. Complete the following word while I grab some hot S_ _ P -> soup Complete the same word while I leave to take a hot bath: S _ _ P -> soap Negative priming works to slow down processing Ex. for each word say the INK COLOR our loud: RED (but the word was written in green)

Question 49

Mood-depdendent memory

Answer 49

What we learn in one state is most easily recalled when we are once again in that emotional state this plays a role in depression and when we are happy we are more likely to remember past times when we were happy

Question 50

Flashbulb Memory

Answer 50

Intense, vivid "snap shots" of an emotionally intense experience. These intense memories are often experiences by PTSD patients during collection of the traumatic event People can (or at least claim to) remember great detail about their episodic memories of particularly emotionally arousing events such as 9/11

Question 51

Recognition

Answer 51

Type of retrieval: identifying specific info from a set of into that is presented Sense of familiarity/recollection of details

Question 52

Continuous Reinforcement

Answer 52

Continuous reinforcement will result in rapid behavior acquisition (or rapid learning), but will also result in rapid extinction when reinforcement ceases

Question 53

Intermittent Reinforcement

Answer 53

Intermittent reinforcement (the opposite of continuous) typically causes slower acquisition of behavior, but great persistence of behavior over time. Therefore it is possible to initially condition behavior using a continuous reinforcement schedule, and then maintain that behavior using intermittent reinforcement schedule.

Question 54

Proactive Interference vs Retroactive Interference

Answer 54

Proactive Interference -> Old information interferes with recall of new information Retroactive Interference-> New information interferes with recall of old information (Think retro is old/in past)

Question 55

Anterograde vs Retrograde amnesia

Answer 55

Both seem with people with Alzheimers Retrograde amnesia -> an inability to recall info that was previously encoded, could be due to damage to the hippocampus Anterograde amnesia -> an inability to encode new memories Anterograde amnesia (AA) refers to an impaired capacity for new learning. Retrograde amnesia (RA) refers to the loss of information that was acquired before the onset of amnesia.

Question 56

Memory decay

Answer 56

Results in a failure to retain stored information Even if info is successfully encoded in memory, it can decay from our memory storage and be forgotten Decay does not happen in linear fashion Rather the "forgetting curve" indicates that the longer the retention interval, or time since the information was learned, the more information will be forgotten, with the most forgetting occurring rapidly in the first few days before leveling off

Question 57

Positive transfer

Answer 57

Old information facilitates the learning of new information | ex. knowing how to play American football may make it easier for someone to learn how to play rugby

Question 58

Reconstructive Process Reconstructive memory

Answer 58

Memory is reconstructive process -> each time a memory is retrieved, the memory trace is strengthened, but also potentially altered Rather than an episodic recall of events that took place, memory is a constructive process that involves building a memory from similar experiences, social expectations, perceptions, cues, and feelings, all of which are combined with recollection of the event itself to form a memory experience. For this reason, an individual's confidence in the validity of a memory has not been found to be a good indication of how valid it actually is

Question 59

Proactive Interference vs Retroactive Interference

Answer 59

Proactive Interference -> Prior learning/old information interferes with recall of new information (mnemonic PRoactive = PRior interference) Retroactive Interference-> Recent learning/new information interferes with recall of old information (Mnemonic: REtroactive = REcent interferences)

Question 60

Korsakoff's Syndrome

Answer 60

Chronic memory disorder caused by severe deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1), most commonly caused by alcohol misuse

Question 61

Source Monitoring Errors/Source amnesia

Answer 61

Forgetting source of a fact/information source information is stored in our source memory ex. don't know where you recognize someone from Or find yourself angry with an individual in your life for doing something harmful, but then you realize they did that in a dream

Question 62

False Memories

Answer 62

Simply repeatedly imagining that one did something can create false memories for an event. False memories are inaccurate recollections of an event and may be the result of the implanting of ideas For example, if one repeatedly imagined being lost as a child in a shopping mall, this imagined occurrence would begin to feel familiar, and as it felt more familiar, it would take on the flavor of a real memory Inaccurate recollections of an event that can lead to implanting of ideas

Question 63

Misinformation effect

Answer 63

Subtle misinformation leads tendency to misremember ex. When participants were asked how fast cars were going when they smashed into each other, instead of just hit each other, they indicated higher speeds. Individuals in the first group also reported seeing broken glass and car parts when there actually were none

Question 64

Anterograde vs Retrograde amnesia

Answer 64

Retrograde amnesia -> an inability to recall info that was previously encoded, could be due to damage to the hippocampus (often due to disease, ex like alzheimers) Anterograde amnesia -> an inability to encode new memories (finding Dori)

Question 65

Acquisition and give example

Answer 65

Applies to both classical and operant conditioning Learning of the conditioned response, this is the time during the Pavlov experiment when the bell and food are always paired, describes the process of the rate of the reinforced response increases

Question 66

Extinction

Answer 66

Applies to both classical and operant conditioning When the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no longer paired, so the conditioned response eventually stops occurring, refers to the decrease in the rate of previously reinforced responses when reinforced ceases. After the dogs have been conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, if the sound is present to the dogs over and over without being paired with the food, then after some period of time the dogs will eventually stop salivating at the sound of the bell

Question 67

Spontaneous Recovery

Answer 67

Applies to both classical and operant conditioning Extinct conditioned response comes back when conditioned stimulus is presented again (bell) When an extinct conditioned response occurs again when the conditioned stimuli is presented after some period of time. For example, if the behavior of salivating to the sound of the bell becomes extinct in a dog, and it is then presented to the dog again after some amount of elapsed time and the dog salivates, the conditioned response was spontaneously recovered.

Question 68

Extinction Burst

Answer 68

Applies ONLY to operant conditioning The increase in response rate that typically occurs when a previously reinforced response initially no longer paired with any reinforcement. This is especially likely to occur when continuous reinforcement is removed abruptly, as demonstrated by what you do first when your remote control does not respond ex. When one puts money in a vending machine, he then pushes the buttons indicating his selection. If nothing comes out of the machine, it is likely that he will push the buttons again and again. This increase in pushing the buttons can be defined as an extinction burst.

Question 69

Shaping

Answer 69

Applies ONLY to operant conditioning Rewarding of successive, closer approximations of the desired behavior ex. Keep reward steps that lead to behavior and then reward final behavior, ex want dog to jump over book so reward steps leading up to jump over book and then reward final jump

Question 70

Discriminative Stimulus

Answer 70

Applies ONLY to operant conditioning Stimulus that increases responses when present bc the subject has learned that this stimulus signals more likely reinforcement. Christmas, for example, makes it more likely for children to wake up early and check their stockings

Question 71

Biological Predispositions

Answer 71

It is much easier to condition an organism to perform a response that is similar to behaviors that is biologically inclined to perform. For example, it is far easier to condition a pigeon to peck at a lever with its beak than to lift a lever with its beak

Question 72

Instinctive Drift

Answer 72

Tendency for certain conditioned behaviors to trigger similar instinctive behaviors. The closer the similarity b/w the conditioned behavior and an innate behavior, the more likely the underlying innate behavior will be substituted for the desired conditioned response. Innate behavior, such as a dog shaking its head (instinctive way of killing prey) can interfere with a similar conditioned behavior, such as its bringing me my beer (explodes everywhere is shake)

Question 73

Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement

Answer 73

Intermittent reinforcement (the opposite of continuous) typically causes slower acquisition of behavior, but great persistence of behavior over time. Therefore it is possible to initially condition behavior using a continuous reinforcement schedule, and then maintain that behavior using intermittent reinforcement schedule.

Question 74

Memory decay

Answer 74

Results in a failure to retain stored information Even if info is successfully encoded in memory, it can decay from our memory storage and be forgotten Decay does not happen in linear fashion Rather the "forgetting curve" indicates that the longer the retention interval, or time since the information was learned, the more information will be forgotten, with the most forgetting occurring rapidly in the first few days before leveling off Decay can happen at each step of memory (sensory memory, short-term memory (can get decay, intrusion errors, displacement), and longer-term memory (decay, interference, retrieval failure)

Question 75

Schema

Answer 75

Mental blueprint with common aspects of the world. We alter perceptions of what is actually there based on our set mental expectations When we construct a memory, we tend to "fill in the blanks" by adding details that may not have been present at the time ex. asked to remember your old classroom and you construct a memory with chalkboard, chalk, desks, posters encouraging reading, and books, based on schema for such a classroom, even though the actual room may not have had posters We may unknowingly alter details

Question 76

What underlies memory and learning/how does it physically happen (what specific biological feature of the connections)?

Answer 76

What is important for learning is the synapses - those sites where nerve cells communicate with each other through neurotransmitters

Question 77

Mirror Neurons | Where are they and what do they do?

Answer 77

In humans and primates, many brain neurons fire in the same pattern when we observe another perform a known action, differences in mirror neuron functioning could explain social deficits characteristic of autism and schizophrenia spectrum disorders Found in premotor cortex, primary somatosensory cortex, supplementary motor area, and inferior parietal cortex. Following are hypotheses for function but we don't really know: *Involved in observational learning of motor skills, and understanding of actions, intentions, and emotions of others (also possibly Connect sight and action of a movement. help us understand actions of others and learn though imitation, Responsible for vicarious emotions such as empathy)

Question 78

Vicarious Emotions (what may cause this?)

Answer 78

Mirror neurons also appear to be activated when we "feel" the emotional responses of others "we on the same wavelength" Some researchers differentiate vicarious emotion from empathy by suggesting that empathy requires both vicarious emotion and role taking

Question 79

``` Extra: Moro reflex Rooting reflex Sucking reflex Babinski method Tonic neck reflex Palmar grasp reflex Walking/stepping reflex ```

Answer 79

Moro reflex -> in response to loud sound, infant will startle; baby throws back head and extends arms and legs, cries and pulls arms and legs back in (present at brith but lasts for six months) Rooting reflex -> in response to touching baby's cheeks, it will turn head in direction of stroke and open mouth to "root" for nipple Sucking reflex -> anything touching roof of baby's mouth, it will being to suck (linked to rooting reflex) Babinski method -> when sole of foot touched, baby will curl toes) Tonic neck reflex -> in response to head being turned to one side, the baby will stretch out its arm on the same side and the and opposite arm bends at the elbow (temporary reflex) Palmar grasp reflex -> in response to stroking baby's palm, the baby's hand will grasp Walking/stepping reflex -> in response to baby's feet touching ground they will attempt to walk

Question 80

Extra | Reflexive movement, rudimentary movement, fundamental movement, specialized movement, application of movement

Answer 80

Reflexive movement -> rudimentary movement (first voluntary movements like rolling, sitting, crawling, standing, and walking) -> fundamental movement ( 2-7 yr old, running, jumping, throwing, catching influenced by environment) -> specialized movement (children learn to combine fundamental movements and apply them to specific tasks) -> application of movement (movements are refined and applied to normal daily activities and competitive activities and recreational activities)

Question 81

Describe neural networks of immature brain | What region of brain develops first? Last?

Answer 81

Immature brain does not have many neural networks, or codified routes for information processing (the types that are generated in response to learning and experience throughout a lifetime). During infancy and early childhood development, these neurons form neutral networks and networks reinforced by learning and behavior. From 3 -6 there is the most rapid growth in the frontal lobes. The association areas associated with thinking, memory, and language are the last cortical areas to develop.

Question 82

*Mary Ainsworth's experiments

Answer 82

strange situation experiments where mothers would leave their infants in an unfamiliar environment (usually a laboratory playroom) and these studies suggested that attachment styles vary among infants

Question 83

*What will the following infant types do in the presence of their mother, when the mother leaves the room, and when the mother returns? How responsive are their mothers (causes their attachment style)? Securely attached infants Insecurely attached infants

Answer 83

Securely attached infants -> in the presence of their mother, they will play and explore; when the mother leaves the room, the infant is distressed, and when the mother returns, the infant will seek contact with her and is easily consoled Have sensitive and responsive mothers who are quick to attend to their child's needs in a consistent fashion Insecurely attached infants -> in the presence of their mother or caregiver, are less likely to explore their surroundings and may even cling to their mother; when the mother leaves they will either cry loudly and remain upset or will demonstrate indifference to her departure and return Mothers or primary caregivers who are insensitive and unresponsive, attending to their child's needs inconsistently or sometimes even ignoring their children

Question 84

Describe the following parenting styles and how their children grow up: Authoritarian Permissive Authoritative

Answer 84

Authoritarian -> attempting to control children with strict rules that are expected to be followed unconditionally, often use punishments instead of discipline, demanding of children but not very responsive and do not provide much warmth or nurturing Children may portray more aggressive behavior toward others, or may act shy and fearful around others, have lower self esteem, and have difficulty in social situations Permissive -> allow their children to lead the show. With few rules and demands, these parents rarely discipline their children. Permissive parents are very responsive and loving toward their children, but are rather lenient; if rules exist, they are enforced inconsistently. Children raised by permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, may be self-involved and demanding, and may demonstrate poor social skills. Authoritative -> Parents listen to their children, encourage independence, place limits on behavior and consistently follow through with consequences when behavior is not met, express warmth and nurturing, and allow children to express their opinions and to discuss options. Authoritative parents have expectations for their children, and when children break the rules they are disciplined in a fair and consistent manner. Authoritative parenting is the "best" parenting style, as it tends to produce children that are happier, have good emotional control and regulation, develop good social skills, and are confident in their abilities.

Question 85

Describe the following parenting styles and how their children grow up: Authoritarian

Answer 85

Authoritarian -> attempting to control children with strict rules that are expected to be followed unconditionally, often use punishments instead of discipline, demanding of children but not very responsive and do not provide much warmth or nurturing Children may portray more aggressive behavior toward others, or may act shy and fearful around others, have lower self esteem, and have difficulty in social situations

Question 86

Describe the following parenting styles and how their children grow up: Permissive

Answer 86

Permissive -> allow their children to lead the show. With few rules and demands, these parents rarely discipline their children. Permissive parents are very responsive and loving toward their children, but are rather lenient; if rules exist, they are enforced inconsistently. Children raised by permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, may be self-involved and demanding, and may demonstrate poor social skills.

Question 87

Describe the following parenting styles and how their children grow up: Authoritative

Answer 87

Authoritative -> Parents listen to their children, encourage independence, place limits on behavior and consistently follow through with consequences when behavior is not met, express warmth and nurturing, and allow children to express their opinions and to discuss options. Authoritative parents have expectations for their children, and when children break the rules they are disciplined in a fair and consistent manner. Authoritative parenting is the "best" parenting style, as it tends to produce children that are happier, have good emotional control and regulation, develop good social skills, and are confident in their abilities.

Question 88

*What will the following infant types do in the presence of their mother, when the mother leaves the room, and when the mother returns? How responsive are their mothers (causes their attachment style)? Securely attached infants Insecurely attached infants disorganized attachment style anxious-resistant insecure attachment style (Insecure ambivalent/resistant) anxious-avoidant insecure attachment style (insecure avoidant)

Answer 88

Securely attached infants -> in the presence of their mother, they will play and explore; when the mother leaves the room, the infant is distressed, and when the mother returns, the infant will seek contact with her and is easily consoled Have sensitive and responsive mothers who are quick to attend to their child's needs in a consistent fashion If the woman had established a secure attachment style during childhood, she would likely have numerous individuals with whom she has bonded and formed strong relationships. Thus, she would have individuals in her life from whom she would like to receive comfort and support Insecurely attached infants -> in the presence of their mother or caregiver, are less likely to explore their surroundings and may even cling to their mother; when the mother leaves they will either cry loudly and remain upset or will demonstrate indifference to her departure and return Mothers or primary caregivers who are insensitive and unresponsive, attending to their child's needs inconsistently or sometimes even ignoring their children Insecure resistant/ambivalent -> Intense distress when mom leaves, fears stranger, resists or even pushes mother away on her return, when they are distressed they are difficult to soothe and are not comforted by interaction with the attachment figure An anxious-resistant insecure attachment style resulting from interactions between parent and child that left the child feeling uncertain about the availability of the parent during times of need An anxious-resistant insecure attachment style usually results from parents who are sometimes supportive and comforting, and at other times absent and unavailable, leaving the child uncertain about the parent’s availability. This leads to preoccupation in adulthood with being abandoned by significant others and to hesitation in forming relationships; when these individuals do form relationships they may display clingy behaviors. With this attachment style, the woman in question would likely be very motivated to have significant people in her life available during such a time of need Insecure avoidant -> no sign of distress when mother leaves, infant is okay with stranger and plays normally when they are present, the infant shows little interest when mother returns, the mother and stranger are able to comfort the infant equally well An anxious-avoidant insecure attachment style resulting from rejection of the child by the parent during times of need Disorganized attachment style (not discovered by Mary but discovered later) -> A disorganized attachment style resulting from interactions with parents who were sometimes positive and, at other times, harsh and rejecting disorganized attachment usually does not lead to disavowal of relationships and significant connections to others. Rather, the quest to form interpersonal connections is hampered by poor social skills and an inability to regulate emotions

Question 89

*What will the following infant types do in the presence of their mother, when the mother leaves the room, and when the mother returns? How responsive are their mothers (causes their attachment style)? Securely attached infants Insecurely attached infants ambivalent attachment Extra from exams: look up if want disorganized attachment style anxious-resistant insecure attachment style anxious-avoidant insecure attachment style avoidant attachment style

Answer 89

Securely attached infants -> in the presence of their mother, they will play and explore; when the mother leaves the room, the infant is distressed, and when the mother returns, the infant will seek contact with her and is easily consoled Have sensitive and responsive/sensitive mothers who are quick to attend to their child's needs in a consistent fashion Insecurely attached infants -> in the presence of their mother or caregiver, are less likely to explore their surroundings and may even cling to their mother; when the mother leaves they will either cry loudly and remain upset when she comes back or will demonstrate indifference to both her departure and return Mothers or primary caregivers who are insensitive and unresponsive, attending to their child's needs inconsistently or sometimes even ignoring their children Infants with ambivalent attachment show stress when their parents leave, but do not want to be comforted when their parents return For children who exhibit an avoidant attachment style while growing up, parents do not make themselves available emotionally and the child responds by withdrawing. Research shows that children who demonstrate an avoidant style did not connect with a parent emotionally.

Question 90

A researcher studying patients gives each of them the same maze to solve. Although each works independently on it for 30 min - with varying degrees of success - none of them recalls seeing the maze when presented with it the next day. Nonetheless, their overall speed and success in solving it has improved significantly. These patients are likely experiencing impairment in: I. Procedural memory II. Episodic memory III. Echoic memory A. I only B. II only C. I and II D. II and III

Answer 90

B

Question 91

What is cortisol, what causes its secretion, what does it do?

Answer 91

Cortisol secretion caused by ACTH from anterior pituitary glands Cortisol is a glucocorticoid, a hormone that shifts the body from using sugar (glucose) as an energy source toward using fat as an energy source This keeps blood sugar levels high during stress (important bc the only energy source the brain can use is glucose) to ensure that brain will have enough fuel to stay active

Question 92

What may cause depression? | ____is a characteristic of most CNS disorders and neurodegenerative diseases

Answer 92

Depression has been linked to diminished functioning in pathways in the brain that involve the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine

Question 93

extra | What are stimulants/what do they do?

Answer 93

Stimulants are drugs known to increase blood metabolism, therefore increase glucose metabolism

Question 94

extra What is the reticular activating system responsible for? What parts of brain are related to brain's reward circuit?

Answer 94

conscious awareness, regulating arousal and sleep−wake transitions amygdala, hypothalamus, nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area

Question 95

Change blindness

Answer 95

Change blindness refers to missing gradual or slight changes in the environment; failure to notice changes that take place between two stimuli/changes made to a visual stimulus. For example, making a relatively minor slip-up like asking the wrong waiter for the check when you're dining out.

Question 96

Treisman’s attenuation model

Answer 96

Treisman’s attenuation model proposes that unattended-to information is attenuated, or reduced in intensity. However, it is not discarded entirely. This helps to explain why particularly salient information, like our name appearing in the background of conversation, might jump out to us from the background, which is known as the *cocktail party effect. **cocktail party effect

Question 97

Inattentional blindness

Answer 97

Inattentional blindness refers to how we can miss things that happen in the background

Question 98

Sequential attention

Answer 98

Sequential attention describes a pattern in which the focus of our attention rapidly switches back and forth.