bio112 Flashcards
(147 cards)
1
Q
how many oceans are there?
A
5
2
Q
how many ocean basins are there?
A
4
3
Q
what is the mid-ocean system
A
marks the zones of sea floor spreading on the Earth’s surface
4
Q
Which part of a continental margin is biologically richest?
A
The continental shelf
5
Q
Tectonic plates are part of what?
A
are part of the lithosphere
6
Q
The deep sea makes up approximately what proportion of the Earth’s surface?
A
60%
7
Q
what percentage of the worlds population live with 100km of the coast?
A
40%
8
Q
name all the oceans.
A
Artic oceans
Southern ocean
Indian ocean
Pacific ocean
Atlantic ocean
9
Q
name all the ocean basins
A
Pacific
Atlantic
Indian
Arctic
10
Q
Facultative symbiosis describes a close relationship between biological organisms that is
A
optional
11
Q
A benthic lifestyle is when an organism
A
is associated with the sea floor
12
Q
A pelagic lifestyle is when an organism
A
swims in the water column
13
Q
What is the approximate percent by which energy/biomass decreases with every increase in trophic level?
A
90%
14
Q
what ocean cycle is mostly absorbed from the atmosphere but also the ocean floor
A
carbon
15
Q
Phosphorus is mostly present as what as it exits in the oceans sediment
A
phosphate
16
Q
Nitrogen needs to be fixed before it becomes bioavailable as
A
nitrate
nitrite
ammonia
17
Q
what are the three ocean cycles
A
carbon
nitrogen
phosphorous
18
Q
what are the terms in ocean ecology
A
Community
- All populations of organisms living in a defined area
Habitat
- The physical place where an organism lives
Niche
- The resources that an organism uses to grow, survive and reproduce
Ecosystem
A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment
19
Q
give the definitions for Inter-specific competition: Fundamental niche and Realised niche
A
Fundamental niche – the set of conditions under which an organism could possibly live
Realised niche – the set of conditions under which an organism does live
20
Q
what are the types of symbiosis
A
Facultative: convenient, not essential
Obligate: essential
Mutualism - both species benefit
Commensalism – one species benefits with no apparent harm on the other
Parasitism – one species benefits at a cost to the other
21
Q
what are the major marine lifestyles
A
Benthic organisms / Benthos =
- Live on the bottom or buried.
- Often sessile – attached to one place
Pelagic organisms =
- live in the water column
Planktonic =
- drift at the mercy of currents
- Phytoplankton & zooplankton
Nekton = can swim against the current (but can be benthic!)
22
Q
Water exists naturally on Earth in which states?
A
gas
solid
liquid
23
Q
waters high heat capacity means that…
A
The global ocean stores a huge amount of heat.
The global ocean is able to redistribute heat from the sun around the planet.
24
Q
Water is particularly good at dissolving at which molecules
A
polar molecules
25
Chloride ions in the ocean are produced by?
volcanos
Hydrothermal vents
26
The main controller of the density of seawater is
temperature
27
Which colour (wavelength) of light penetrates the farthest into water?
blue
28
what affects water transparency
Strongly affected by suspended and dissolved material
Can be greatly affected by plankton
29
how much carbon is stored in the oceans compared to the atmosphere
CO2 is > 80 % of dissolved gas in the ocean
Ocean stores >50 times more CO2 than the atmosphere
30
the Coriolis effect deviates winds to the...
right in the northern hemisphere
left in the southern hemisphere
31
what type of pressures do warm and cold air produce
warm air causes low-pressure
cold air causes high pressure
32
Ekman transport means the net water movement is
90 degrees to the wind direction
33
what are gyres
Wind-driven surface currents combine into huge, more or less circular systems
Ocean currents thus act like a giant thermostat, warming the poles, cooling the tropics, and regulating the climate of our planet
34
what are thermoclines
Permanent (main) thermocline: a transition zone between warm surface water and cold water below.
seasonal thermoclines form in temperate and polar latitudes in the spring and summer.
Thermohaline circulation After water masses leave the surface they sink to a depth determined by their density.
Water of intermediate density descends only part way.
35
Safety rules in the intertidal areas
Always know the tide times
Follow a dropping tide, return when it turns
The tide can come in very rapidly in big, shallow bays
36
what are estuaries
Estuaries are areas where freshwater inputs meet the sea
37
important estuarine & soft sediment ecosystems
Halocline – salinity gradient
Isohaline – line of uniform salinity
Turbidity maximum – an area of mixing where particles can be carried up and downstream repeatedly
(turbidity is how clear the water is, and how much sediments are in the water)
38
what are positive estuary and negative estuary
positive - Most estuaries where freshwater input exceeds evaporation & dominates over seawater
negative - Low precipitation, High evaporation, Elevated salinity (can exceed 50 psu on average in some Texas Coast Bar-built estuaries)
39
how are salinity affected in estuaries
Salinity affected by: shape of estuary, seabed morphology, wind, evaporation, freshwater discharge, tidal currents
40
what happens to the solutes?
* Primary production: removes dissolved inorganic carbon, nutrients (P, N, Si) and some trace metals and also forms particles
* Adsorption & desorption: removes and adds solutes e.g. Na+ displaces Ca2+
* Coagulation: forms particles that settle e.g. FeOx, Fe(OH)3 (flocculation)
* Settling: large particles can scavenge adsorbed species from the water column as they sink
* Sediment reactions & exchange: solid forms may be unstable in sediment redox conditions
(e.g. organic matter, MnO2)
* pore water composition different to water column
* exchanges by diffusion, irrigation, resuspension
41
what is Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the process of maintaining salt and water balance (osmotic balance) across membranes within the body
* Osmoconformers – allow their body fluid to change with salinity
* Osmoregulators – keep salt concentration constant by regulating the concentration of solutes in their body
42
what are the two main groups of animals in estuaries
Epifauna – live on the sediment surface
Infauna – burrow in the sediment for protection
43
what are the threats to estuaries
* Development
* Sewage and runoff
* Litter
* Climate change- erosion
* Over-harvesting
* Invasive species
* Migration Barriers
* Noise & Light Pollution
44
types of feeding in sedimentary communities
suspension feeding - Feeding on particulate organic matter present in the water
filter feeding - Suspension feeding in which water is actively pumped or filtering structures are swept through the water
passive suspension feeding - no active pumping of water, but use of cilia and mucus to move particles to the mouth
45
where are shallow seas are primarily located
continental shelf
46
what are epi and endo benthic organisms
epibenthic organisms are bottom feeders that LIVE ON TOP of the sea floor
endobenthic organisms are bottom feeders that LIVE IN the sea floor
47
What proportion of global fisheries occur on the continental shelf?
90%
48
Are Soft-sediment shallow sea habitats are homogenous and stable?
FALSE
49
DO Laminaria kelp can have fronds up to 3 metres long and produce over 5kg C/m2/year
FALSE
50
TRUE OR FALSE Productivity in shallow seas primarly occurs in the meiobenthos
FALSE
51
aspect of Oligotrophic waters
they are nutrient poor
52
what do DOM, POM, DOC, POC and DIN stand for
DOM = dissolved organic matter
POM = particulate organic matter
DOC = carbon component
POC = particulate organic carbon
DIN = dissolved inorganic nitrogen
53
percentage of SOFT BOTTOM SUBLITTORAL COMMUNITIESin continental shelves
(~45% of temperate area, 30% of tropical)
54
what is the distribution of coral reefs from the equator
Distributed within 30 degrees latitude of the equator
55
are there any coral species in common between the Atlantic and the Indo-Pacific
False
56
what are corals, and their needed habitat
Hermatypic scleractinian corals (phylum Cnidaria)
Surface is living tissue on a calcium carbonate skeleton
Rarely grow deeper than ~ 50 m
Upper limit of temperature varies (can by above 35C in
the Persian Gulf)
Have a larval stage as a planula in the zooplankton
57
what are the coral reefs
Fringing = most common, susceptible to terrestrial influences
barrier reef = unclear between fringing, have large disparities between back reef and fore reef
Atoll = Found far from land, rising up from depths of 1000s of meters, ring of reef, islands and sand cays, Most in the Indo-West Pacific (rare in Atlantic), Clear waters and low nutrients
58
what are the type of herbivory on coral reefs
BROWSERS = Key for reef resilience, Actually eat large fleshy macroalgae & associated epiphytic material, e.i. unicorn fish
GRAZERS = Intensely graze epilithic algal turfs, Can limit the establishment & growth of macroalgae, i.e. parrot fish
59
what are mangroves
Dicotyledonous woody shrubs (54 true species exclusively in mangrove habitats)
Confined to tropics
Form dense forests – monospecific patches
Can dominate intertidal muddy shores (need soft sediments to get established)
60
what is the pelagic zone and which ocean fits into it
the pelagic zone is ecological realm that includes the entire ocean water column. Of all the inhabited Earth environments, the pelagic zone has the largest volume,
it is the open ocean
61
what are the areas in the pelagic zone
Epipelagic zone = surface - 200m, warmest, best lit
mesopelagic zone = only 1% of the light reaches this zone, marked by a thermocline, depth varies with seasons
bathypelagic = no light, constant temperature of 4 degrees
abyssopelagic = 4000 - 6000m, Mean water depth of oceans is 3,682m deep, 40 percent of the global surface, much of the life is there is benthic, fuelled by marine snow
hadopelagic = >6000m, same as abyssopelagic
62
if the pelagic zone is the open ocean what are the two "provinces" that separate the shallow ocean and deep ocean
* Neritic – near shore
* Oceanic – beyond the continental shelf
63
what are the two organisms groups of the pelagic zone
Plankton = - Unable to swim ‘significant’ distances
- Passively transported by ocean currents
- Planktonic plants = phytoplankton, φυτόν (phyton), meaning "plant“
- Planktonic animals = zooplankton, ζῴον (zoon), meaning "animal"
Nekton – free swimmers = Marine mammals, fish, invertebrates, reptiles AND birds
64
what does DVM stand for and what is it?
Diel Vertical Migration (DVM)
Largest migration in terms of biomass on the planet.
Animals occur in deeper water during the day, Move to shallower water at night
65
Are Polar landscapes seasonal
TRUE, very seasonal
66
what is the degree tilt of the earth
23 degrees
67
list some of the factors of the artic ocean
Small & Shallow
- 15.8 million square km (< 10% of the pacific)
- Average depth ~1200m (pacific~4000m)
Surround by land
- Limited links with Atlantic & Pacific
- Wide and gentle continental shelf
- River runoff contributes nutrients (and pollution)
68
what is the mean temperature of the artic sea
-1.8 degrees
69
what percentage of loss of sea ice is experienced every decade since 1979
2.9%
70
what is the size of THE ANTARCTIC (SOUTHERN) OCEAN
LARGER AND DEEPER
- 20.3 million square km (< 13% of the Pacific)
- Average depth ~ 3200 m (Pacific ~ 4000m)
SURROUNDS A CONTINENT
- Defined as below the 60°S parallel or the ‘Antarctic Convergence’
- Extension of Atlantic, Indian & Pacific Oceans
- Steep and narrow continental shelf
- No river run-off
71
what is the ice loss of the antarctic plate between 1994 and 2018
Loss of ~4000 Gt of ice between 1994 and 2018Loss of ~4000 Gt of ice between 1994 and 2018
72
which direction does the Antarctic current flow in
Flows clockwise (as seen from south)
- Gives rise to Antarctic convergence
- Unimpeded flow
- Due to Eckman transport, upwelling of
cold nutrient rich water
73
how do humans affect the carbon cycle
9 gigatonnes of carbon that humans are emitting (~35 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide) becomes an extra 4 gigatonnes in the atmosphere, an extra 3 gigatonnes of photosynthesis and an extra 2 gigatonnes in the ocean every year.
74
what are the Terms and acronyms associated with biochemical cycle
POC (and or TC) – DOC Particulate Organic Carbon
PON – DON Particulate (Dissolved) Organic Nitrogen
POP (DOP) Particulate (Dissolved) Organic Phosphorus
DIP (Pi Phosphate) DIP: Dissolved In-organic Phosphorus
DCM (Deep Chlorophyll Maxima)
NPP and GPP (Net and Gross Primary Production
75
what are the Top 6 major elements as ions in the sea (make 99% of dissolved salts)
Cl-, Na+, Mg 2+, SO4 2-, Ca 2+, K+
but these are not limiting nutrients
76
what are the main carbon reservoirs on earth
atmosphere = 720 Gt
oceans = 38,400 Gt
terrestrial biosphere (total) - mainly forests = 2,000 Gt
Gt = 10^12kg
77
what percent of CO2 from human activity is released into the atmosphere winds in the oceans, rivers and lakes
30-40%
78
Sea urchin larvae can be classified as what?
Meroplankton
79
Mixotrophy can be defined as where an organism....
uses both autotrophic and heterotrophic modes
80
Mesozooplankton graze mainly on.....
microplankton
81
In temperate regions of the oceans....
there is a relatively large net export production
82
what are the trophic groups
* Autotrophy = ‘self nourishment’ (e.g. photosynthetic)
* Heterotrophy = ‘other nourishment’ (organic matter, other plants or animals)
* Mixotrophy = ‘mixed nourishment’ (both of the above)
* Holoplankton = ‘entire drifter’ (entire life-cycle spent floating e.g. phytoplankton, krill, copepods, formanifera)
Meroplankton = ‘partial drifter’ (part of life-cycle spent floating e.g., larval stage of sea urchin, lobsters etc. is floating)
83
what are the Zooplankton groups
* Foraminifera &Radiolarians
In phylum Retaria part of supergroup Rhizaria
* Dinoflagellates & Ciliates are in Alveolata
* Cnidarians, crustaceans, molluscs (inverterbrates) and chordates are all animals (metazoans)
84
why are Copepods important in biogeochemical cycles
* Copepods graze on Phytoplankton and microzooplankton
* What about bacteria? (some eat organic detritus and the bacteria growing on it)
* Copepods are important for the conversion of PON to DON
* Faecal pellets sink through Euphotic zone
Pellets circulate here and some sink to deep ocean
85
what are the conditions of subtropical regions and temperate regions
Subtropical regions = less nutrient due to weather conditions, small phytoplankton due to being grazed heavily by microplankton, fast nutrient turnover with low net export
temperate regions = more nutrient resuspension so rapid supply leads to large phytoplankton, these are predated by large zooplankton, greater sinking due to larger sizes, faecal pellets and aggregates
86
what is stratification
is the natural separation of an ocean's water into horizontal layers by density, which is generally stable because warm water floats on top of cold water, and heating is mostly from the sun, which reinforces that arrangement.
87
what does stratification cause within oceans
prevents nutrient exchange
caused by high gradients in tem, salinity and density
increased by surface tem, glacial meltwater
decreased by winds (mixing)
88
A cyanobacteria is best described as
a gram negative photosynthesising oxygen releasing bacteria
89
do Cyanobacteria have a thin or thick peptidoglycan layer
thin
90
What type of cyanobacterial cell is involved in survival under unfavourable conditions?
akinete
91
Which of the following is not a cyanobacteria? Synechocystis, Trichodesmium, Synechococcus, Phaeodactylum
Phaeodactylum
92
Which of these marine reptiles do not need to return to land to lay eggs?
sea snakes
Marine iguanas
Sea turtles
Saltwater crocodiles
sea snakes
93
Which of these marine animals are endotherms?
Saltwater crocodiles.
albatrosses.
Sea snakes.
Green turtles.
Penguins.
Marine iguanas.
Leatherback turtles
Puffins.
albatrosses
Penguins
Leatherback turtles
Puffins
94
Which species of turtles often nest outside of spring/summer?
Leatherback turtle
95
Higher temperatures cause sea turtles to
produce more female offspring
96
TRUE or FALSE, All the eggs in a single clutch laid by a sea turtle will have been fertilised by the same male?
FALSE
97
what are the three biosphere life zone
Open sea, shore and land
98
what are the advantages of brown algae: kelp forests
* Offshore, beyond the wave zone, brown kelps form forests
* Provide shelter for a diversity of fish and invertebrate animals
* Large carnivores find food and refuge here
* Including tuna and sea otters e.g. in California
* Humans harvest these kelps for food and industrial products
99
what are dinoflagellate
a single-celled organism with two flagella, occurring in large numbers in marine plankton and also found in fresh water. Some produce toxins that can accumulate in shellfish, resulting in poisoning when eaten.
100
why are dinoflagellate important?
important as symbionts in many kinds of organisms
AND symbiotic dinoflagellate Zooxanthellae is responsible for photosynthetic productivity that allows coral to grow in poor nutrient areas
101
describe the dinoflagellate resting cysts
produced under unfavourable conditions
resting cysts that drift to the lake or bottom of the ocean and remain viable for years
until conditions become favourable will germinate, which will revive all the dormant populations
102
what are dinoflagellate toxic componds
20% of species produce >1 highly toxic compounds
pfiesteria piscicida uses its deadly compound
toxic substance that paralyses the fish respiratory system
103
general macroalgae structure
Blade
Gas Bladder - helps seaweed frond float to photosynthesis during high tide
frond - the general skin, waxy and leathery to help protect and reduce damage
stipe - Thick and flexible to avoid snapping in tides and waves
holdfast - helps hold it to the rocks
104
why are macroalgae is important
- Role at the land-sea margin vital as home and nursery grounds for many animals
- Important for biodiversity
- Also of value in global carbon budget
- Bioindicators of chemical (nutrient input)
Some species are free floating e.g. Sargassum
105
what are the factors affecting zonation
- Characteristic of rocky shores
- At higher exposure the zonation spreads over a greater height relative to tide range
- Some reds are parasitic (Polysiphonia on Ascophyllum)
- Ability to survive desiccation
- Survival of osmotic shock from extremes of salinity
- Abrasion resistance (sand, stone)
- Flexibility and strength against wave action
105
What is the difference between a circular economy and a linear economy
A circular - Manufacturing to retailing to consumption and use to recycling repeat
linear economy - (resources) take to MAKE to (waste) DISPOSE
106
list ways that algae biomass can be used to achieve more of an circular economy
Algal biomass -> slow release fertilizer
algal biomass -> animal & fish feeds (high-quality protein, omega-3 FA, carotenoids)
algae in feeds can stop cattle emission of methane
107
Algal biotechnology advantages
Advantages
Potentially highly productive - require just CO2 and nutrients for maximizing productivity (autotrophic)
So, can remediate wastes and flue gases
Can also grow heterotrophically on cheap feedstocks (glycerol & waste sugars) – more productive than autotrophy
Produce valuable products (omega-3 fatty acids; antioxidant carotenoids; pigments and dyes)
Good for heterologous protein expression (e.g., anti-cancer antibodies)
108
Algal biotechnology limitations
Disadvantages
Photosynthetic light conversion efficiency to biomass (~5%)
10X too expensive for large-scale biofuel production (to replace petroleum)
3X too expensive for high value products (e.g. Astaxanthin) production – answer, more research
Harvesting of microalgae can expensive – economies of scale
109
what is the scientific term for a flowering plant
angiosperm
110
what is the sea grass classification
Class: Monocotyledons
Order: Alismatales
111
what are the requirements for sea grass
* Light (5-20 SI%)
Higher minimum light requirement than algae
* Nutrients
In tropical regions, too many nutrients = low light, nutrients causes an excess of algae growth
* Shelter
Need shelter bays
* CO2
* Oxic mud or sand (oxygen within the sediment)
* Saline water (0-56ppt)
0-56ppt growth, 0-99ppt tolerance
* Suitable Temperature (0-30c)
Higher temperature means higher rates of respiration which can be lethal to plants where there is not much light.
112
how much sea grass do dugongs eat per day
40 kg
113
how much sea grass do turtles eat per day
2kg
114
what are the threats to seagrass
Global decline of seagrasses
* Approximately 58% of seagrass meadows globally have lost part of their distribution.
threats:
agricultural run-off - extra sediment less photosynthesis
temperature increase
urban infrastructure - direct destruction
urban & industrial run off
cooling waters from power stations
sea level rise
boating
aquaculture
dredging
115
what do Gelatinous zooplankton inculde
siphonophores
scyphozoans
ctenophores
pyrosomes
salps
116
diel vertical migration when do the fish descend and ascend
* Animals occur in deeper water during the day (Deep Scattering Layer, DSL).
* Move to shallower water at night.
117
what stages do larvae go through
Photopositive – near surface;
Photonegative – close to bottom.
118
Meroplanktonic animals: do what?
have a planktonic larval phase but a nektonic or benthic adult.
119
what are krill
euphausiids
120
benthic or pelagic
1. cuttlefish are...
2. Nautilus are...
3. Octopus are...
4. Squid are...
1. Benthic
2. Pelagic
3. Benthic
4. Pelagic
121
Passive filter feeders tend to be found in .... and Active filter feeders tend to be found in
hard bottom communities.
sediment.
122
Isopods are..... and Amphipods are......
dorso-ventrally compressed
laterally compressed
123
The largest and most diverse order within the malacostracans is:
Decapoda
124
The specialised feeding mechanism in regular echinoids is called the
Aristotle's lantern
125
Deposit feeders are also often
scavengers
126
what are the irregular echinoids
sand dollars
Heart urchins
127
are cephalopods herbivorous or carnivorous
they are ALL carnivorous
128
do Elasmobranchs have gill slits or opercula
gill slits
129
do Bony fish have gill slits or opercula
opercula
130
do Sharks have heterocercal tails or homocercal tails
heterocercal tails
131
do Bony fish have heterocercal tails or homocercal tails
homocercal tails
132
what are Ampullae of Lorenzini
they are electroreceptors found in elasmobranchs and a few teleosts
133
How many sharks are estimated to be killed annually for the shark fin trade?
100 million
134
TRUE OR FALSE Elasmobranchs all show mating with internal fertilisation
TRUE
135
what are key points about Dynamic lift, and static lift
dynamic lift - more economical at high speed, actively seeking out prey
Static Lift - more economical at low, speed, opportunistic prey encounter
136
TRUE or FALSE do Osteichthyes have swim bladder
true
137
what 96% of all living fish are
teleosts
138
Why is a swim bladder so evolutionarily advantageous?
It opens up new niches
It provides a much lower cost of transport
139
he upper jaw bones in teleosts are called..
premaxillae and maxillae
140
Most teleosts are..
broadcast spawners
141
Alaska pollock, Gadus chalcogramma, the most caught fish in 2016, is a
gadiform
142
what marine mammal is classed as Pinnipedia
sea lions
seals
walrus
143
what marine mammal is classed as Carnivora
sea otter, marine otter and polar bear
144
what marine mammal is classed as Sirenia
Manatees
Dugong
145
what marine mammal is classed as Cetacea
whales
dolphins
porpoises
146
what are the solutions to human and ocean involvement sustainability
Selective fishing via regulations, gear improvements,
eco-labels
* Regulations, gear improvements, MPAs
* Fish conservatively of MSY, avoid some largest
individuals / spawning sites, MPAs
* MPAs, fishing below MSY for population rebuilding
* International treatise & enforcement
* Effective feed research and sustainably sourced
ingredients
* Organic methods & mutualisms
* Away from migration routes (salmon) or high value
ecosystems (mangrove forests)
* Mutualisms
- rem
- Mobilises sedimen
