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AP Biology > Biochemistry > Flashcards

Biochemistry Flashcards

1
Q

Essential elements

A

Carbon (c), Hydrogen (h), Oxygen (o), Nitrogen (n) –> 96% of all living matter
Phosphorus (p), Sulfur (s) –> other 4% (CHONPS)

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2
Q

Molecules

A

Compounds compromised of ONLY nonmetals helf together by COVALENT bonds

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3
Q

Covalent bonds

A

bond of life (strongest bond), intramolecular force (atoms within molecules)

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4
Q

Polar Covalent Bonds

A

cheat : any bond between H & N, O, and F, electrons are shared unequally between two nonmetals, LARGE difference in electronegative

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5
Q

Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

A

electrons shared equally, similar ectronegativity

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6
Q

Electronegativity

A

Tendency of an atom to attract electrons to itself when it’s bonded to another atom

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7
Q

Weak Bonds

A

intermolecular force, attractions between different molecules, short term attachment (most important = Hydrogen bonds)

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8
Q

Hydrogen Bonds

A

formed between polar molecules, H atom and the O, F, or N of a second polar molecule, strongest of the weak bonds

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9
Q

Molecules of Life

A

water, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids (not only organic but are POLYMERS)

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10
Q

Organic Molecules must have…

A

At least one C-C bond

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11
Q

Water Structure

A

polar covalent molecule, high electronegativity (h+, o-)

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12
Q

Water’s H-bonding

A

H-bonds form between pos H atoms of one polar molecule and the neg O atoms of neighboring H20 molecules (extensive h-bonding gives water its unique structure & properties that are needed for life on earth)

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13
Q

Unique Water Properties (4)

A
  1. cohesion and adhesion
  2. Medium of life (facilitates the chemical processes of cells)
  3. Moderates Temperature (result of its specific heat of vaporization)
  4. Surface Tension (facilitates the processes (chemical reactions) of cells)
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14
Q

Cohesion

A

When two of the SAME polar molecules form H-bonds with each other

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15
Q

Adhesion

A

when two DIFFERENT polar molecules form H-bonds with each other

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16
Q

Because of cohesion water…

A

H20 molecules H-bond to each other and resist being pulled apart

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17
Q

Because of adhesion water…

A

H20 molecules H-bond to other polar molecules or charged particles and resist being pulled apart

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18
Q

Capillary Action

A

COHESION & ADHESION create a continuous water column from the roots to the leaves, responsible for the movement of H20 against gravity from soil to the leaves of the plant for photosynthesis, water enters through microscopic veins in roots and then travels up to the leaves as H20 molecules are being evaporated off the surface of a leaf

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19
Q

Medium of Life

A

H20 is the solvent of life - most of the important molecules are polar and therefore soluble, H2O facilitates the movement of materials across cell membranes (allows for diffusion and osmosis), buffers chemical reactions of cells (allows cells to resist changes in pH)

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20
Q

Water Moderates Temperature

A

H2O can resist changes in temperature as a result of its high specific heat and heat of vaporization

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21
Q

Cohesion between water molecules = ___ specific heat

A

HIGH

can absorb a great deal of E without a significant increase in temperature as most of the absorbed used to disrupt H-bonds between the H2O molecules

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22
Q

Cohesion between water molecules = high heat of _____

A

VAPORIZATION

H2O molecules have to absorb a high amount of heat E in order to change from liquid phase to a gaseous state as most of the E absorbed must first be used to break the H-bonds between the H2O molecules

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23
Q

How does water help regulate Earth’s temperatures?

A

most of the solar E absorbed is utilized to heat large bodies of water (high specific heat, high heat of vaporization)

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24
Q

Evaporative Cooling

A

Organisms are composed mainly of H2O therefore they can moderate (resist sudden changes) their temperatures (evaporation of water to cool organisms)

exs. sweating in humans, urohydrosis in birds, licking in Kangaroos

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25
Q

Ice is ____ dense than H2O

A

LESS

frozen water molecules spread apart into a lattice –> creates air spaces in the solid ice
h2o expands as it solidifies (ICE FLOATS)

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26
Q

Surface Tension

A

the surface of liquid water exposed to the air is difficult to puncture –> cohesion between water molecules slows evaporation of water from a large body of water –> allows for the continued presence of large bodies of water on Earth (also allows water to bead up on waxy surfaces ex. leaves)

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27
Q

Importance of Carbon

A

only true nonmetal that has 4 valance electrons
can have a maximum of 4 covalent bonds around it

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28
Q

Organic Molecules

A

Molecules that contain at least one C-C bond (carbons covalently bonded to each other)

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29
Q

Diversity of Carbon Molecules

A

carbon tends to bond to itself in long chains that form the skeletons of organic molecules

  1. carbon chains may very in length
  2. can very in shape - either straight, branched or arranged in rings
  3. can have multiple bonds (double & triple) that very in number and location
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30
Q

Carbon Skeleton Attachments

A

distinctive properties of an organic molecule depend not only on the arrangement of the carbon skeleton but also on the attachments to that skeleton
attachments are required to complete the octet for each carbon atom most common attachment is Hydrogen

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31
Q

Functional Groups

A

Specific groups of atoms that attach to the carbon-hydrogen core of organic molecules and help to give the molecules particular function

  • most of the cell’s molecules have 2 or more different functional groups
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32
Q

Hydroxyl group

A

(-OH) - functional group

can be found at a terminal carbon or within the chain

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33
Q

Carbonyl Group

A

(-CO) - functional group

can be found at a terminal carbon or within the chain

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34
Q

Amino Group

A

(-NH2) - functional group

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35
Q

Carboxyl Group

A

(-COOH) - functional group
O = C - OH

ONE carbon simultaneously DOUBLE BONDED to oxygen and bonded to a hydroxyl group

can ONLY be found at a terminal carbon

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36
Q

Sulfhydryl group

A

(-SH) - functional group

can be found at a terminal carbon or within the chain

form DISULFIDE BONDS
- special covalent bonds that are found ONLY in proteins

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37
Q

Phosphate Group

A

(-PO42-)

NEGATIVELY charges

can be found at a terminal carbon or within the chain

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38
Q

Importance of functional groups

A

help to give each type of molecule its distinctive properties

allow molecules to form WEAK BONDS with other molecules

most functional groups are POLAR (hydrophilic) –> makes the molecules with these attachments POLAR

POLAR molecules can H-bond to other POLAR molecules which allows POLAR molecules to attach temporarily

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39
Q

Molecular Shape

A

all molecules have SPECIFICITY (characteristic 3D shape)

result of carbon skeleton and functional groups

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40
Q

Isomers

A

molecules that have the SAME chemical formulas but DIFFERENT arrangements of atoms (structure) and therefore different properties

a.k.a same chemical formula + different arrangements = different properties

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41
Q

Structure defines function

A

structure = function

shape of a molecule DETERMINES its function

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42
Q

If the shape of a molecule changes then the function…

A

changes

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43
Q

The molecular shape is crucial to …

A

molecule recognition

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44
Q

if different molecules are complementary in shape they…

A

interact

ex. receptors and hormones

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45
Q

Polymers

A

Biological molecules are composed of covalently bonded smaller molecules called MONOMERS

Chains of monomers COVALENTLY BONDED

varying length and sequence of monomers = different polymers (DIVERSITY)

larger polymers are also known as MACROMOLECULES

46
Q

Monomers

A

Small organic molecules (C2-C6)

building blocks of polymers, every type of polymer has a limited # of monomers

47
Q

Properties to ALL polymers (3)

A
  1. composed of a limited set of unique monomers
  2. synthesized by joining monomers together via a chemical reaction called DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS
  3. broken down into monomers by adding water molecules via a chemical reaction called hydrolysis
48
Q

Dehydration Synthesis

A

Chemical reaction used to join together monomers and create polymers by removing H2O molecules

results in the loss of an H2O molecule between reacting monomers - special covalent bond is formed

ratio of H2O molecules removed to # of special covalent bonds formed is 1:1

cells can create infinite # of DIFFERENT polymers - by changing # or sequence of monomers

49
Q

The ratio of H2O molecules to number of monomers

A

The number of water molecules released by dehydration synthesis is always one less than the TOTAL number of monomers joined together

50
Q

Covalent bonds created via dehydration synthesis are ____ , why?

A

SPECIAL

made by removing water and thus can be broken by adding water

51
Q

Hydrolysis

A

A chemical reaction that breaks down polymers into monomers by the addition of H2O molecules

monomers remain intact because it ONLY breaks the special covalent bonds formed via dehydration synthesis

52
Q

PROTEINS ***

A

True polymers

Contain C,H,O,N and sometimes S

the most structurally sophisticated molecules - instrumental to ALL LIFE PROCESSES

53
Q

Types of Proteins

A

structural proteins, storage, transport, hormonal, receptor, contractile/ motor, enzymes (catalysts that speed up reactions)

54
Q

Protein Monomer =

A

Amino Acids

55
Q

Amino Acids

A

Need 4 bonds to be stable

C2 molecule

Amino group (NH2) attached to one carbon

56
Q

Variable side chain attachment is the ____

A

R group

attached to the same carbon with the amino group

57
Q

Types of amino acid side chains

A

nonpolar - hydrophobic, uncharged side chains

polar - hydrophilic, uncharged side chains

basic - hydrophilic positively charged side chains

acidic - hydrophilic, negatively charged side chains

58
Q

Peptide Bonds

A

Covalent bond created via dehydration between amino acids

formed between the carboxyl end of one amino acid and the amino group of a second amino acid

** TO RECOGNIZE** - look for a carbon double bonded to an oxygen next to a nitrogen

59
Q

Protein Structure

A

MOST structurally sophisticated

chains formed together by peptide bonds must FOLD to create a unique 3D structure required for function

60
Q

Primary Structure

A

Unique amino acid sequence held together by peptide bonds (covalent bonds)

what DNA codes for

61
Q

Secondary

A

A - helix or B - sheet (can have both within a certain protein)

caused by H-bonding between the carboxyl and amino groups

does NOT involve the R-groups of the amino acids

62
Q

Tertiary

A

when single polypeptide chain forms a globular shape

result of mainly weak bonds between the r groups of the amino acids
hydrogen bonds
disulfide bonds (bridges) can form between cysetine side chains holding a folded polypeptide in place

MINIMUM LEVEL OF STRUCTURE THAT MUST BE ACHIEVED TO HAVE FUNCTION

63
Q

Quarternary

A

aggregation (clustering) of two or more different polypeptides

result of weak bonds (mostly h) between the polypetide chains

64
Q

Denaturation

A

proteins

most of protein shape is determined by weak bonds (h-bonds) and therefore heavily influenced by environment

can occur when exposed to pH alterations, high salt concentration, or HIGH TEMPS

proteins have limited capacity to renature

65
Q

When a denatured protein has unraveled and lost it’s shape it has become ____

A

biologically inactive

66
Q

Denaturation only breaks weak bonds so when a protein denatures it loses _____ structure

A

4, 3, or 2

67
Q

Chaperones

A

proteins that assist the folding of other proteins into their 3 shape

can be used after denaturing OR when a protein is newly synthesized

NOT available for all proteins

68
Q

What happens to proteins during a fever?

A

Body increases temperature to speed up the creation of white blood cells (immune system cells) to fight infection (bacterial or viral) –> the longer the body

69
Q

Cytoskeleton Microtubules

A

big

largest cytoskeleton fiber
can be created & disassembled
are what compose cell fibers during cell division
compose flagella and cillia
provide tracks for motor proteins

70
Q

Intermediate Filaments

A

medium

intermediate cytoskeleton fiber
permanent structures
involved in maintaining cell shape and anchoring organelles

71
Q

Microfilaments

A

Narrowest cytoskeleton fiber

can be created and disassembled
involved in muscle cell contraction

72
Q

CARBOHYDRATES

A

true polymers limited set of monomers, created by dehydration synthesis, broken down by hydrolysis

composed of C,H,O in a 1:2:1 ratio

  • ose ending

often known as sugars and starches

73
Q

3 major biochemical functions of carbohydrates

A
  1. Immediate source of energy
  2. Glucose storage
  3. structure
74
Q

Carbohydrate Monomers

A

MONOSACCHARIDES

glucose, fructose, galactose, riose, deoxyribose

most common = glucose (C6H12O6)

75
Q

Glycosidic Linkage

A

Special covalent bond between two monosaccharides via dehydration synthesis

(covalent bond - weakest of the strong bonds)

76
Q

Carbohydrate Polymers

A

Disaccharides, Polysaccharides

can be either linked or branched

77
Q

Disaccharides

A

Two monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic linkage (created by dehydration synthesis)

IMMEDIATE e-source for cells

sucrose, maltose, lactose

78
Q

Polysaccharides

A

HUNDREDS of monosaccharides joined by GL created by DS

function in GLUCOSE STORGE or CELL STRUCTURE

79
Q

Polysaccharide examples

A

Cellulose - structure, plant cell walls

Chitin - structural, strengthens exoskeletons in insects and fungal cell walls

Glycogen - animal GLUCOSE STORAGE stored
in liver & muscle cells

Starch - plant glucose storage potatoes and grains

80
Q

LIPIDS

A

mainly C,H,O and sometimes P

diverse group of molecules

NOT all are considered true polymers, NO true monomers

81
Q

“sort of” monomers in lipids

A

FATTY ACIDS & GLYCEROL

only found in 2/3 lipid families

82
Q

The unifying lipid property is:

A

LIPIDS ARE HYDROPHOBIC

extremely NON-POLAR

mainly chains/rings of HYDROCARBONS

comprised entirely of non-polar covalent bonds

83
Q

Glycerol

A

lipid “monomer”

3 carbon chain that contains 3 hydroxyl groups

84
Q

Fatty Acids

A

lipid “monomer”

long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group

85
Q

fatty acids that contain ONLY single bonds between C atoms are :

A

SATURATED

86
Q

fatty acids that contain DOUBLE bonds between C atoms

A

UNSATURATED

contain at least one double bond between Carbons

create a kink wherever there is a double bond

87
Q

Ester Linkage (BOND) * lipids*

A

Covalent bond created via DS between the glycerol (hydroxyl group) and the fatty acid (carboxyl group)

88
Q

Triglycerides

A

true polymer

created by dehydration synthesis using 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol

major function - LONG TERM E STORAGE

89
Q

Triglycerides are held together by ____ ester linkage bonds

A

3

removes 3 H2O molecules (E-Linkage created by dehydration synthesis)

90
Q

Triglycerides FATS:

A

trig in animals

solid @ room temp
ONLY saturated fatty acids (fatty acids stack close together)

91
Q

Triglycerides OILS:

A

trig in plants

liquid @ room temp
unsaturated fatty acids - the kinks from the unsaturated fatty acids prevents the fatty acids from stacking close together

92
Q

Nutrient Polymers we Consume

A

Carbohydrates, proteins, fats (triglycerides)

93
Q

Triglyceride = ____ + __ fatty acids

while

Phospholipids = ______ + __ fatty acid tails

A

GLYCEROL & 3

PHOSPHATE HEAD & 2

94
Q

Phospholipids

A

Major component of ALL biological membranes

modified polymer (only PARTIALLY created by DS)

1 glycerol molecule attached to 2 fatty acids & a phosphate group

95
Q

Phospholipids have a ___ head:

A

HYDROPHILIC

polar - negatively charged phosphate group
comprised of the glycerol + phosphate

96
Q

Phospholipids have _____ tails:

A

HYDROPHOBIC

non-polar - fatty acid hydrocarbon chains
tails comprised of the fatty acids

97
Q

STEROIDS

A

NOT a polymer (not created by DS)

functions: animal cell membrane, cell communication as hormones

c-skeleton of 4 fused rings

98
Q

Cholesterol

A

most Abundant steroid in humans

ONLY steroid utilized in animal cell membranes

99
Q

NUCLEIC ACIDS

A

C,H,O,N, & P

True polymers - limited monomers, created via dehydration synthesis, broken down by hydrolysis

functions: store & transmit hereditary info, high E molecules

100
Q

Nucleotides

A

Nucleic acid monomer

3 component structure:
1 - 5-carbon sugar (Deoxyribose)
2 - phosphate group @ the 5’C
3 - nitrogenous base (A,T,C,G) @ the 1’C

** ONLY distinction between a nucleotide & nucleic acid is the nitrogenous base**

101
Q

Nitrogenous Base Categories

A

Purines = 2 fused carbon rings that contain N atoms
- Adenine & Guanine

Pyrimidines = one carbon ring that contains N atoms
- cytosine, thymine, uracil

102
Q

Phosphodiester Bond

A

Covalent bond formed between 2 nucleotide during DS

3’ Carbon of one phosphate and the phosphate 5’ carbon of a second nucleotide

103
Q

Types of nucleic acids

A

DNA, RNA, ATP

104
Q

DNA

A

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID

true polymer
CODE FOR PROTEINS

5-carbon sugar in nucleotides is DEOXYRIBOSE

contain ONLY the nitrogenous bases
AGTC

105
Q

DNA has a ____ stranded helix

A

DOUBLE

each strand has a sugar-phosphate backbone held together by PHOSPHODIESTER bonds

strands are ANTIPARALLEL one 5’ –> 3’ other is 3’ –> 5’

106
Q

DNA strands are held together by _____ bonds

A

H-BONDS

between the bases

107
Q

purine to pyrimidine pairs are called ____

A

COMPLEMENTARY BASE PAIRING

108
Q

purine = pyrimidine

A = __

__ = C

A

A = T

held together by 2 hydrogen bonds

G = C

held together by 3 hydrogen bonds

109
Q

RNA

A

RIBONUCLEIC ACID

true polymer

involved in protein synthesis
SINGLE strand
5-carbon sugar in nucleotides is RIBOSE
nucleotides contain
AGCU

110
Q

ATP

A

ADENOSIN TRIPHOSPHATE

modified nucleotide

5-c sugar = ribose
nitrogen base adenine
3 phosphate groups

made by cellular respiration or fermentation

E molecule of life because it contains high E bonds (phosphate - phosphate bonds)

AP Biology (6 decks)

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