Biodiversity S2 Flashcards
(352 cards)
1
Q
what does ecology mean
A
Ecology-“science of the relation of the organism to its surrounding outside world”
2
Q
what does abiotic mean
A
physical conditions (non living)
3
Q
what does biotic mean
A
Biotic: other organisms (living)
4
Q
what does population mean
A
Population (i.e. groups of the same species)
5
Q
what does community mean
A
Community (i.e. populations of different species)
6
Q
what does ecosystem mean
A
Ecosystem (i.e. the community in its physical environment)
7
Q
name all the ecological techqniques
A
techniques−Observations, surveys, correlations, experiments, models
8
Q
describe the Darwins finches
A
Selection and adaptation
-Darwins finches
Adapted by natural selection and competition to occupy a range of niches and develop into distinct species
Finch species immigrated to Galapagos islands and through adaptive radiation there are now many more species,each showing a different ecological niche,evidenced by the variety of beak morphology
9
Q
what does fitness mean
A
its a measure of an organism ability to reproduce
10
Q
name the three conditions for natural selection to occur
A
Variation results in difference between individuals
Variable traits within a population must be heritable
Variation in fitness-survival and reproduction
11
Q
what does natural selection determine
A
-Natural selection is a process which the total environment determines which members of a species survive
12
Q
what is meant by adaptation
A
-An adaptation is a heritable trait evolved over time by the process of natural selection so that it increases fitness(reproductive success)
13
Q
what is directional selection
A
Directional selection:Favours one extreme phenotype over others, invasion of a new trait
14
Q
whats disruptive selection
A
Disruptive selection: favours extreme phenotypes over intermediate ones , can cause adaptive radiation(when a single species splits into new species that are adapted to different environments)
15
Q
whats stabilising selection
A
Stabilising selection:Favours average traits and selects against extreme traits , no evolution
16
Q
what does adaptive radiation result in
A
more species
17
Q
what does evolution mean
A
Evolution=change in mean/variance of phenotypic trait across generations due to changes in allele frequency
18
Q
what does natural selection result in
A
convergent evolution
19
Q
what is convergent evolution
A
-This is where the same trait appears independently
Convergent evolution=when unrelated organisms evolve similar traits or behaviours to adapt to similar environments
20
Q
how do you work out the total phenotypic variance
A
=variance due to genetic factors+variance due to environmental effects
21
Q
what does phenotypic plasticity mean
A
Phenotypic plasticity:same form responds to different temperatures differently
Phenotypic plasticity is a change in an individuals behaviour ,morphology induced by the environment
22
Q
what is meant by genetic adaptation
A
Genetic adaptation:different forms respond to the same temperatures differently(heritable change in an organism that helps it survive/reproduce)
23
Q
what does natural selection require
A
Natural selection - requires inheritable traits and variation between individuals
24
Q
adaptation can be two things , what are they
A
-A process= a product of evolution by natural selection
-A trait=moulded by natural and artificial selection (beak size)
25
what is meant by adaptation
-An adaptation is a heritable trait that has evolved over time by the process of natural selection( the organism maintains / increases reproductive fitness)
26
what is meant by reproductive fitness
-Reproductive fitness= ability of an organism to reproduce + pass on its genes to next generation
27
what is meant by heritability of a trait within a population
-Heritability of a trait within a population is the proportion of observable differences in a trait between individuals within a population that is due to genetic differences
28
what are mendels principles
Principle of segregation of unit characters
Example - white + red does not equal pink with complete dominance
Principle of independent assortment
Cant predict genotype and phenotype
Dominant allele phenotype(homozygous and heterozygous genotype)
Recessive allele phenotype(homozygous genotype)
29
what are the three types of mutation
-Neutral
-Influential(positive)
-Terminal(negative)
30
what is continous varation
-continuous=Its a gradual change in a characteristic across a population
31
what is discontinous variation
-Discontinuous=Its a type of variation that has a limited number of possible values , and can only jump from one category to the next (for example a persons blood type can only be A,B,AB or 0)
32
give an example of continous variation
height
33
does continous variation have many genes
yes
34
is the environmental component high in continous variation
yes
35
what does complete dominance mean
- 2 phenotypes
-Complete dominance = where theres no blending (no pink from adding white and red together for example)
36
any change in allele frequency describes what key term
evolution
37
hardy weinberg equation
p+q=1
2pq+q2=p2=1
38
According to the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:
Genotype frequencies will remain constant from generation to generation if the following conditions are met,Genotype frequencies will remain constant if what
Genotype frequencies will remain constant if
Mating is random
No mutations or migration (gene flow)
Large population(no genetic drift)
No (natural) selection
39
in the hardy weinburg equation what letter is dominant + recessive
p=dominant allele
q=recessive allele
40
The genotpyes AA,Aa and aa represent hwat genotype frequencies(page8)
AA=P
Aa=H
aa=Q
41
to work out A allele/ p what equation do you use
p=P+0.5H/N
42
to work out a allele/ q what equation do you use
q=Q=0.5H/N
43
what are the factors that cause evolution
-factors that cause evolution:mutation , genetic drift , gene flow , natural selection,non random mating
44
give an example of evolution
-Example of evolution: black peppered moth : changed its colour and outcompeted white moth as it was better camouflaged in trees
45
what did the cambrian explosion result in
-proliferation(increase in number of ) of animals with backbones and hard skeletons
46
why is immigration higher if free niches are available
-Immigration is higher if free niches ( free niches refers to available spaces that are occupied by other species)are available
47
what is the species-area relationship
The species-area relationship (SAR) is a concept in island biogeography that describes the relationship between the area of an island and the number of species it supports
48
what is the red queen hypothesis
The Red Queen Hypothesis is an evolutionary concept suggesting that organisms must constantly evolve and adapt in response to the pressures exerted by other organisms (e.g., predators, prey, competitors, parasites)
49
why does the red queen hypothesis suggest extinction for some species
-Red queen hypothesis breaks down: outcompeted -> extinct( the hypothesis suggests that if a species fails to keep up with evolving predators it may go extinct)
50
what are the biological causes of extinction
-red queen hypothesis
-competition
51
what are the non biological causes of extinction
asteroids, changes in physical environment
52
what are the consequences of extinction
-extinction= vacant ecological niche(when a species goes extinct its ecological niche , the specific role it plays in the environment , becomes vacant -empty
For example : Predator-prey relationships (e.g., a predator that goes extinct leaves its prey species with less predation pressure).
-radiation=niche filled by another species (radiation refers to the rapid diversification of species that occurs when a new ecological niche becomes available , where the absence of a species open opportunities for others
53
Name the 2 most important mass extinction events
-permian and Cretaceous
-End of Permian 80-96% species went extinct
-At the end of the Cretaceous 60-75% species went extinct
54
name the 5 mass ectinction events-page 12
Permian , Cretaceous , Triassic,Devonian and Ordovician
55
what was the permian mass extinction event due to
plate tectonics
56
what was the Cretaceous mass extinction event due to
due to an asteroid
57
what is meant by symbiosis
-An ecological coupling of two or more species
Mutualism-both benefit
Commensalism-one benefits , one does not
Amensalism-one losses , the other doesn't loose or benefit
58
what is mutualism symbiosis
Mutualism symbiosis-where both species benefit from the association
59
what is meant by commensalism symbiosis
Commensalism symbiosis -one species benefits , one does not
60
what is meant by amensalism symbiosis
Amensalism symbiosis -one species losses , the other doesn't loose or benefit
61
what does coevolution mean
-Coevolution is used to describe the influence of closely related species on each other in their evolution
62
how does coevolution occur
-Coevolution occurs because of a close symbiotic relationship . often mutualism or parasitism/predation
-Many factors can influence coevolution , such as the frequency + degree of interaction
63
what does coevolution lead to
-Coevolution leads to cospeciation , phylogenetic trees are consequently closely matching
64
definition of coevolution
: By Ehrlich and Raven -
coevolution is the examination of patterns of interaction between two major groups of organisms with a close and evident ecological relationship, such as plants and herbivores.
65
what is the principle of coevolution
*Principle of coevolution: A change in one gene in one species stimulates an evolutionary change in one gene in a second species, which in turn stimulates another evolutionary change in the first species, species evolve in response to each others selective pressure
66
what are examples of coevolution
1-prey and predators
2-plants and pollinators
67
what is meant by arms races
Arms races:Is a continual struggle between competing groups that escalates into a cycle of improving adaptations
68
Explain the red queen hypothesis
The Red Queen hypothesis: Organism are constantly evolving in response to one another and this dynamic leads to a mutual escalation in which one species develops better defenses while the other develops better offensive strategies
69
explain antagonistic coevultion
Antagonistic coevolution refers to the evolutionary arms races between two species that interact in ways that harm one another(EG-predators and prey)
70
explain paraiste - host interactions
-Parasite reduces fitness of the host
-Host requires defence mechanisms against parasite through mutation
-New mutation appears in parasite so spreads in population
71
list some defences for animals
-Colouration and shape to camouflage (crypsis= blending , predator fails to detect , Masquerade=resemblance of an organism to an inedible object )
-Protective armour (woodlouse +millipedes), spines(hedgehogs)
-Chemical defence and aposematic colouration
-Mimics
-Behavioural (fake death)
-Deflection of attack (butterflies)
-Retaliation (elephant)
-Group defence=Musk oxen for example
72
why are apparent species long lived
-Apparent species are long-lived and indigestible , difficult to consume due to their physical/chemical defences
73
what is batesian mimicry
-Batesian:a harmless species imitates a dangerous species
74
what is mullerian mimicry
-Mullerian:both are dangerous , where multiple species share a warning signal to predatory
75
what is deimatic behaviour
-Defensive postures , include colour change , that frighten another animal (puffer fish)
76
what is thanatosis
playing dead (possum)
77
define population
Population=A group of sexually interbreeding / potentially interbreeding individuals
78
define species
Species=A group of interbreeding / potentially interbreeding natural populations , which are reproductively isolated from other groups
79
define metapopulation
=A group of populations of the same species that are separated by space but regularly interact
80
where does a metapopulation occur
-Occur in fragmented habitats(fragmented because of local conditions)
81
what is a metapopulation connected by
limited migration
82
what is a metapopulation characterised by
extinction and recolonization
83
what are the aids (advantages) of studying populations
Aids:conservation (endangered species ) and management (fisheries)
84
what can we measure about populations
1)distribution/dispersion (how far apart are populations-location )
2)Density
85
What are the three type of population dispersions
uniform,clumped,random
86
how do we measure the abundance of a popualtion -what equation
determining abundance=density x area
87
what are three ways to measure population size
mark recapture
counting
taking samples
88
what is the Lincoln-Petersen index(mark recapcture equation)
N=nM/R
N=population
M=number of marked animals
n=number captured (post marking)
R=number of recaptured (that were marked)
89
what is ecophysiology
Ecophysiology= the study of how organism interact with their environment
-Importance of individual variation (genotype) within a population (genetic variation)
90
what does hibernation involve (ie what is it)
Hibernation involves the body temperature being taken down just above the external environment , resulting in minimal heat loss
91
what is meant by stress
-This term comes from Newtonian physics: an imposed force (stress) produces a deformation (strain) in an object with the strain being proportional to the stress (Canon 1929)
-stress is the imposed force that produces a strain on something
-Stress=the physiological resultant of demands that exceed an organism's regulatory capacities
92
what is a stressor
-Stressor is an environmental factor , any factor that inhibits the growth and reproduction of individuals
93
what is an example of stress
-The effects of decreased water availability on maintenance of homeostasis in dry hot summers by the Quokka
94
what do shelfords law of tolernace and leibigs law of the minimum help explain
Both Shelford's Law of Tolerance and Liebig's Law of the Minimum are important ecological concepts that help explain the distribution and growth of species in relation to their environment
95
explain shelfords law of tolerance and give an example
-Shelford's law of tolerance= the distribution of a species will be controlled by that environmental factor for which the organism has the narrowest range of tolerance
(in simpler form it means that a species can only survive within a certain range of specific environmental conditions (like temperature) and the factor that limits the species distribution the most will determine where it can live
For example- If a species can tolerate a wide range of temperatures but only a narrow range of moisture levels , its distribution will be limited by the availability of suitable moisture
96
explain leibigs law of minimum
-This was based on Liebig's law of minimum which is the idea that= the rate of any biological process is limited by that factor in least amount relative to requirements
(in simpler forms it focuses on the availability of the single limiting factor that constrains biological processes)
97
summarise leibigs law and shelfords law in one sentence each-ie what do each deal with
Leibigs law deals with the minimum factor (like the missing nutrient)that limits biological processes)
Shelford's law deals with the tolerance for environmental conditions
98
define acclimation
-Acclimation = a response by an animal / plant that enables it to tolerate a change in a single factor in its environment
99
define acclimatization
-Acclimatization=a reversible adaptive response that enables animals/plants to tolerate environmental change involving several factors- it is a physiological response
100
define adaptation
-Adaptation=evolutionary process -> through action of Natural Selection following a mutation , the tolerances of a species can change
101
what is an abiotic factor, give examples
-Abiotic factors:
Physical barriers (mountain)
Spatial gradients in climate variables (a desert is a barrier due to lack of precipitation)
Climate (average weather conditions at a place for more than 70 years )
102
what is temperature determined by
-Temperature is largely determined by solar radiation
103
describe the environmental variation of altitude
-Negative relationship between altitude and air temp
-Atmospheric pressure -> systematic decrease
-Air temperature -> environmental lapse rate, this occurs because of the warming effects of the earths surface
-Warming effect of earths surface
104
describe the environmental variation of global air circulation
-Where air ascends we have low pressure
-Where air descends we have high pressure
-Global air circulation pattern
-Rotation of Earth , faster where circumference large
-Coriolis effect
-Deglection: N hemisphere = right , S hemisphere = left
105
what si the coriolis effect
Because the Earth rotates on its axis, circulating air is deflected toward the right in the Northern Hemisphere and toward the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This deflection is called the Coriolis effect.
106
define biome
Biome definition: a biological subdivision that reflects the ecological and physiognomic character of the vegetation.They are the largest geographical biotic community
107
what are the environmental factors that may vary
temp and water availability
108
what is meant by Global Actual evaporation (AET)
-Actual amount of water that is evaporated and transpired from a plant community over a given time period ,and the actual amount is largely dependent on the available water and temperature
109
explain the theory of rain shadow
-water is evaporated up and is moving from the water onto the land , the wind has to move higher , getting cooler reaching a dew point and the rain then falls as it moves upwards
-This is called a rain shadow
110
with aquatic biomes , the zones epilimnion , thermocline and hypolimnion are categorised by what
-the temperature of water
111
with aquatic biomes , temperature variaton is split into three zones : epilimnion,thermocline,hypolimnion define these
epilimnion = warm,low density , surface waters
Thermocline=zone of rapid temp change
Hypolimnion= cold , high density , deep waters
112
how is light reduced in an environment
-reflected (time of day)
-Absorbed by water
113
what are the two categories of biomes
1=freshwater: rivers,streams,lakes
2=Marine:open ocean,coral reefs ,kelp forests ,mangrove forests ,salt marshes,estuaries
114
give an example of an animal that is adpated to the selection pressure being lack of water (tessestrial environment -desert)
Lack of rain-> little/no water to drink
EG-Kangaroo rat-long loop of Henle ->allows it to reabsorb lots of water water ->produces a very concentrated urine
115
what is an adaptation of a fish that allows it to survive in an aquatic environment
Aquatic environment - open ocean
Loss of water from body due to osmosis
EG-cartilaginous fish - high levels of urea in blood -> they become in osmotic balance with the sea water (maintain osmotic balance with their environment)
Addition reading information:They are osmoregulatory , they regulate their internal environment to maintain a stable conc of salts
116
what are the factors important for population growth
density,age
117
what are the models that predict species growth
semelparity(everything at once),iteroparity(a little bit at a time)
118
describe what is meant by closed and open population
The way a population grows can be classified into open and closed populations
-Open population = immigration and emigration
An open population allows for the movement of individuals in and out of the populations
-Closed population = no immigration and emigration (in closed populations population growth is only as a result of birth and death)
119
what are the three models for population growth
geometric , exponential and logistic
120
revise geometric growth model
121
what are the assumptions of the geometric population growth model
-birth rate > death rate
-Birth and death rates are indepdent of population size
122
what is the exponential population growth model used for
-Used for populations that have continuous reproduction
-Usually small organisms such as bacteria , protists , exception is humans
123
what are the assumptions of the exponential population growth model
-No immigration / emigration
-unlimited population growth
-No death due to limited resources / predation
Because growth is proportional to the current population size, the population grows faster as the population becomes larger. This leads to accelerating growth over time
-Population changes only due to Birth rate and Death rate
(uses differences between birth rate (B) and death rate (D)to predict changes in population size)
124
how do you work out the rate of population growth
Population growth rate = change in population size/a very short time interval
X-difference between two time points
125
what is population density
Population density=number of individuals per unit area
126
what are the effects of population density
Population density=number of individuals per unit area
Density-dependent factors-increase in effect as population density increases;
-Food
-Space
-Density-dependent diseases
-Predation
Density -independent factors;
-Weather
-Density-independent diseases
127
what are the effects of population density on a large population
Density dependent
Large population
a)birth rate independent of density ; death rate dependent on density
b)birth rate dependent on density;death rate independent of density
c)birth and death rate dependent on density
128
what are the effects of population density on a small population
Density dependence
Small population
Allele effect
a-Death rate increases
b-Birth rate decreases
c-Death rate increases;birth rate decreases
129
describe the logistic population growth model
Includes concept of populations approaching carrying capacity
As population size increases,decrease value of dN/dt
At K , dN/dt=0
N/K = environmental resistance to population growth
Multiply right side of exponential growth formula by (1-N/K)-> logistic model of population growth
130
what does the logistic population growth model describe
The logistic population growth model describes the growth of a population that is limited by resources and other environmental factors, such as competition, predation, and disease. Unlike the exponential growth model, which assumes unlimited resources, the logistic model takes into account that as a population grows, it will eventually face constraints that slow down its growth.
K=carrying capacity
N=population size at time t
dN=change in population size
dt=very short time interval
131
what is N/K in terms of logistic population growth model N and K
N/K = environmental resistance to population growth
if NK ,r is positive = population declines
if N=K ,r=o, population stays the same
132
what are the three models of population growth
geometric,exponential and logistic
133
what is the life cycle of an insect
Magicicada sp (insecta , Order Hempitera)
Life cyle:
-lots of eggs laid
-adults die
-nymphs live underground
-adults come to surface at same time and breed
134
what is the definition of life history
Life history definitions: The significant features of the life cycle through which an organism passes , with particular reference to strategies influencing survival and reproduction
135
define semelparity and iteroparity
Semelparity - each individual produce very high numbers of offspring
Iteroparity= breaking up reproduction and investing a little bit of energy each time
EG-Penguins produce only 1 egg
136
are survival rates higher in older first time parents , why is this
yes
-Older first-time parents have had longer to grow = they're larger = can have more offspring
-But if mature earlier they have a shorter generation time
-This advantages and disadvantages (ie being larger but can have more offspring) balance leads to the Evolutionary Stable Strategy (ESS)
137
what are the three types of mating systems
-Monogamy (biparental care-one male mates with one female , both parents involved in caring for offspring)
-Promiscuity(no postnatal parental care)
-Polgamy (uniparental care) : subdivided into polygyny (males multiplying) and polyandry (females multiplying )
138
describe the mating system of polygamy
-Mating system where a male / female mates with two or more members of the opposite sex
-2 preconditions for the evolution
1-Multiple mates or sufficient resources to attract multiple mates that must be energetically defensible by individuals
2-Ability of animals to use this potential (dominant male must be able to defend it )
One sex is free from paternal care (male)- has to spend its time defending it
139
describe the mating system of promiscuity
Promiscuity- males and females mate randomly with multiple partners (no pair bond)
140
what three environments do we observe parental care in
-when the environment is predictable (know the resources are available)
-when the environment is stressful (parent has to do something to ensure the offspring survives , strong selection pressure as if they dont help them the offspring will die)
-Distant/scattered food
141
what did Latitude , cody and ashmole each suggest about environmental effects on parental investment (clutch size )
lack: clutch size depdends on available resources
cody:clutch size large to take advantage of beneficial environmental conditions
ashmole:clutch size directly proportional to seasonal variation in resources
142
describe r and k selection in animals
-r selected : favoured for their ability to reproduce rapidly (rapid reproduction) , animals or plants that follow r-selection are great at producing lots of babies quickly
-k selected :favoured for their ability to make a large proportional contribution to a population that remains near the carrying capacity (they're at carrying capacity, theres lots of competition), animals / plants that follow the K-selection are better are competing in environments where there is lots of competition for resources
- R selected habitat : unpredictable
-k selected habitat : lots of competition
143
describe the characteristics of K and r selection , do they produce little/lots of offspring, large / small size
R and K : characteristics
-r selected:
-smaller size
-earlier maturity
-semelparity , they only produce once in their life , but they produce a lot of offspring at once
-lots of small offspring
-K selected :
-larger size
-deferred reproduction , they take longer to mature , and dont start having babies until theyre older
-iteroparity, they can reproduce multiple times throughout their life , but with fewer offspring each time
-few,large offspring
144
describe how ancestral and derived traits have evolved
Ancestral traits : traits that have been passed down from an organisms ancestors
-due to action of genotype and environment
-evolved as a result of natural selection pressures of the environment ( traits have developed over time because they helped organisms survive in their environment)
derived traits : traits that are more recent or evolved traits that are different from the ancestral ones
-controlled by lots of genes (quantitative trait)
-plastic= varies depending on environmental conditions
-evolutionary stable strategy: cant be invaded by the spread of a rare alternative strategy
145
describe the two types of reproduction , asexual and sexual and explain why sexual selection is favoured in unpredictable environments
Fitness- refers to how good an organism is at surviving and reproducing in its environment
-Darwin's fitness : measured as reproductive success
-Types of reproduction :
-Asexual
-Sexual -> favoured in variable /unpredictable physical environments as its creates genetic diversity which helps species adapt to the changing environment
-Leads to sexual conflict between males and females over investment in offspring ->antagonistic coevolution ( is when males and females evolve in ways that respond to each others behaviours -> sexual selection
146
define sexual selection and compare it to natural selection
Sexual selection - definition
-The selection on mating behaviour , either through competition for mate or through choice of certain mate .In sexual selection , individuals are favoured by their fitness relative to other member of the same sex , whereas natural selection works on the fitness of a genotype relative to the whole population
Sexual selection is a type of natural selection but instead of focusing on survival , it focuses on an individuals ability to attract males / compete for males, in sexual selection individuals are favoured because they have traits that help them outcompete others of the same sex
147
define human ecology
Human ecology definition: the scientific study of the relationships between individual humans and human societies , and their external , natural , built and social environments
148
what are the 6 causes of genetic diveristy
Selection (directional , stabilising-these decrease GD , disruptive these increase GD)
Mutation -increase GD
Gene flow -increase GD
Meiotic drive -decrease GD
Non-random mating - decrease GD
Random genetic drift- decrease GD
149
what are the 4 mechanisms to maintain genetic diveristy
(4 mechanisms to maintain genetic diversity )
1- populations are not in evolutionary equilibrium with respect to directional / stabilising selection
2-Deleterious mutations and selection balanced
3-Disruptive selection actually common
4-Flow of genes from another population
150
why does genetic drift have a larger effect on smaller populations, and what does it cause
-Genetic drift has a larger effect , causes random fixation of alleles and loss of heterozygosity (over time this random change can reduce genetic diversity , meaning fewer different genes exist in the population
-Genetic variation tends to decrease over time
151
what is inbreeding depression and what does it increase
-Inbreeding depression (reduction in survival / viability of offspring produced when two relatives mate with each other ) , increase in homozygosity, meaning they have two copies of the same allele
-Genetically effective population size is smaller than the actual size
152
what does PVA stand for and what is it a prediction of
-Estimation of probability of persistence over a specific time period
-This can be based on exponential , density - dependent or age dependent models
-Use estimation variation in demographic parameters to add noise to simulated populations
153
list the four human mediated changes (changes in the environment that are caused by human activities)
Human mediated changes
Habitat degradation and destruction
Habitat fragmentation - wildlife corridors
Overexploitation - PVA
Introduction of non-native species
154
what is meant by a metapopulation
Metapopulations( a group of separate populations of the same species that are connected by immigration/emigration)
155
what are the two key findings related to metapopulations
2 reasons:
1-larger patches ( more space for individuals )
2-higher patch density (immigration from nearby populations)
156
explain the allele effect
Allee effect-the allele effect refers to where a small population size negatively impacts the fitness or survival of individuals in that population
-Population density effect due to small population size
-Lower mating success in low density populations
157
Why are non native species sometimes successful in their new environment
A-enemy release hypothesis,when non native species move to a new place , they leave behind their natural enemies , without these enemies , the species can grow and spread more easily
(can disperse without many of the natural enemies that keep them in check in their native range
B-evolution of increase competitive ability (EICA) hypothesis , this theory suggests over time , non-native species may evolve to become better at competing for resources in their new environment
C- resource hypothesis , this theory suggests that non-native species can be successful because they can use resources in a way that native species cant
158
revise species area relationship - page 45
159
decsribe landscape ecology
Landscape= an area that is spatially heterogenous in one factor of interest , a landscape is an area that isnt uniform but instead is made up of different types of land / habitats
Landscape ecology= the study of landscapes , taking account of the ecology of their biological population
-Disturbance creates spatial heterogeneity ( the landscape becomes more varied in its structure )- > normal state = non - equilibrium, after a distrubance , the landscape becomes more diverse in its features
-Matrix = area surrounding suitable habitat
160
revise landscape ecology features page 46
161
define community and how organisms interact
Community: a grouping of populations of different organisms living together in a particular environment
The organisms interact through competition , predation , parasitism , symbiosis , resulting in a structure of trophic and spatial relationships
within a community there are a number of different guilds
162
define what is meant by a guild
Guild-group of species that depend on the same resource for survival and reproduction
163
define richness
number of species
164
define relative abundance
what percentage of each species contributes to the total number of individuals of all species
165
define eveness in terms of species abundance
Evenness- degree to which distributions of individuals between species is equitable , the same
166
species diveristy takes into account of what two things
both richness and eveness
167
why is species diversity affected by intermediate disturbance hypothesis , does low intensity have high/low diversity and does high intensity of disturbance have high/low diversity - page 50
-Species diversity also affected by intermediate disturbance hypothesis
-If you have intermediate disturbance = higher diversity
-Low disturbance = low diversity , due to competition
168
How do wolves affect salmon population (hint - deers), domino effect
-wolves prey of deer
-deer break down river banks with their hooves and eat saplings
-Trees growing along river banks provide shade and branches , enabling salmon to breed
-wolf numbers affect deer numbers
-deer numbers affect trees along river banks
-trees affect salmon numbers
169
what is meant by zonation
Zonation=the division of an ecosystem into distinct layers that experience particular abiotic conditions
170
what causes zonation
-abiotic factors such as water
171
what are the two types of energy
Two types of energy :potential and kinetic
Energy cant be created or destroyed
When energy cant be passed on any further : increase in entropy = increase in evenness
2nd Law of Thermodynamics : in a closed system , entropy will always increase
172
what is the 2nd Law of thermodynamics
2nd Law of Thermodynamics : in a closed system , entropy will always increase
173
when energy cant be passed on energy further , according to 2nd law of thermodynamics , is there and increase of decrease in entropy and eveness
When energy cant be passed on any further : increase in entropy = increase in evenness
2nd Law of Thermodynamics : in a closed system , entropy will always increase
174
do living organsism resist increase in entropy ( resist 2nd law of thermodynamics)
yes
as we arent a closed system
175
describe primary production
The rate at which biomass is produced by photosynthetic and chemosynthetic autotrophs in the form of organic substances
Gross primary production (GPP) = total energy assimilated
Net primary production (NPP) = total energy available to heterotrophs
NPP=GPP-R
R = respiration
Productivity= rate of production (in kcal/m2/year or g/m2/year)
Standing Crop Biomass (SCB) : amount of accumulated organic matter in an area at a given time (g/m2)
Habitat can have SCB and a low productivity
176
what is the gross primary production
total energy assimilated
177
what is the net primary production and how do you work it out
Net primary production (NPP) = total energy available to heterotrophs
NPP=GPP-R
R = respiration
Gross primary production (GPP) = total energy assimilated
NPP=(SCB)+D+C
SCB=amount of accumulated organic matter in an area at a given time
habitat can have SCB and a low producitity
D=death of plants
C=biomass in consumer organisms
178
what effects primary production ( things that incraese + decrease)
Bottom up effects: Bottom-up control means that resources at the base of the food web (like nutrients, sunlight, water, or primary producers) control the structure and productivity of the ecosystem.
Precipitation
Temperature
Nutrients
Light
Top-down effects;Top-down control means that consumers at higher trophic levels (like predators or herbivores) control the populations of organisms below them in the food web.
Consumers (eating biomass)
More evapotranspiration=more primary production
With increasing nutrients , the primary production increases
Primary production increases when in shallow water ( more light intensity )
179
what is secondary production
Secondary production
Net biomass production ( new tissue , young )by heterotrophs from available NPP
-If you increase NPP , the herbivore biomass also increases
180
page 52 secondary production
181
is energy lost between trophic levels , if so how
-Most energy lost between trophic levels , due to respiration and waste products
-Limits how long food chains can be
-Ecosystem size is main driver for food chain length , not productivity , ecosystem size key in aquatic systems
-Productivity is more important in terrestrial systems
182
what is meant by trophic cascade
Trophic cascade= change at the top cascades down the trophic levels
183
define nutrient pool
Nutrient pool = amount of a nutrient that is stored in a particular part of the ecosystem
184
define nutrient flux
Nutrient flux = rate at which a nutrient moves between different pools
185
define nutrient source
Nutrient source = a nutrient pool where a nutrient is released faster than it is absorbed
186
define nutrient sink
Nutrient sink= a nutrient pool where a nutrient is absorbed faster than it is released
187
with the phosphorous cycle , in which part of the cycle is there little of it , and which part lots of it
-little phosphorous in atmosphere , lots in soil
188
what are the differences in the phosphorous cycle , carbon and nitrogen cycle
-little phosphorous in atmosphere , lots in soil
C02:
-C02 on the right , lots of it in atmosphere
-turned into organic molecules in plants through photosynthesis
-respiration of plants puts it back into atmosphere
-humans burning fossil fuels , release lots of C02 back into atmosphere
-carbon has a lot in atmosphere , hardly anything in sediment
nitrogen;Little in sediment , lots in ocean , not as much in atmosphere
189
what is decomposition
Decomposition = breakdown of chemical bonds in organic molecules
Releases : energy , carbon dioxide , water , inorganic nutrients
190
list the factors affecting decomposition
-moisture
-temperature
-chemical composition of substrate
-chemical composition of environment
191
define minerlisation
when organic material is turned back into inorganic material
Organic > inorganic
Levels of N in litter changes over time - three stages
Leaching : organic N decreases as water - soluble compounds are lost
Mineralisation : organic N transformed into inorganic N
Immobilization : organic N increases as inorganic N is taken up by decomposers
192
What are the three stages of nitrogen changes in litter over time, and what occurs during each stage?
Leaching: Organic nitrogen decreases as water-soluble compounds are lost.
Mineralization: Organic nitrogen is transformed into inorganic nitrogen.
Immobilization: Organic nitrogen increases as inorganic nitrogen is taken up by decomposers.
193
how do you work out net minerlisation
Net mineralisation = mineralisation - immobilisation
194
What is eutrophication, and how does an increase in nutrients affect primary production and biodiversity?
Eutrophication is the process in which an increase in nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, leads to an increase in primary production (such as algae growth). This excess growth can result in a decrease in biodiversity, as it often causes oxygen depletion in water, harming aquatic life and disrupting ecosystems.
195
define succession
=The directional and sequential change in vegetation structure over time , either in response to an environmental change , or as a result of the intrinsic properties of the organisms
Time scale : longer than changes occurring over a season (longer than seasonal changes) : shorter than changes due to climate change
early species: high growth rate , high dispersal , short -lived
late species : low growth rate , low dispersal , long lived
196
describe succession
-Each community creates new niches
-New niches occupied by new species
-Old species disappear because their niches disappear , and / or they are outcompeted
Early species : high dispersal , fast development
Late species : high competitive ability
197
with regards to primary sucession and secondary , what does it colonise
Primary succession : colonisation of previously unvegetated areas (example - post-glaciation / after volcanic eruption)
Secondary succession : colonisation of previously vegetated areas (after fire / abandoning agriculture field )
198
describe cyclical succession
-bacteria will grow on bare rock first , then green seaweeds , then limpets , the brown seaweeds will colonise rocks , then there is disturbance (massive wave) and start with bare rock again
199
what are the two models people come up with to understand successional change
2 models people have been studying to understand successional change : relay floristics model and initial floristics model
-relay floristics model more stochastic
-primary succession follows relay floristics model more
-secondary succession follows initial floristics model more
200
describe the intermediate distrubance hypothesis with regards to the example of the small , medium sized and larg boudlers(talk avout diversity of each)
-small boulders were disturbed the most often , these were dominated by Ulva
-high disturbance = low diversity
-medium sized boulders were intermediate disturbance , had the highest diversity
-large boulders , disturbed rarely were dominated by Gigartina , had low diversity
Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
Disturbance frequency is confounded by surface area
Larger surface area is correlated with more species
People artificially stabilise small boulders
They found that the artificially-stabilised small boulders were dominated by Gigartina
Its disturbance that determines species richness / succession
201
does distrubance determine species richness and succession
yes
202
to investigate the intermediate distrubance hypothesis , with relation to succession , there were 4 models made , what were these and what were the results-67
A=no disturbance
B= frequent-small scale disturbance
C-infrequent small-scale disturbance
D-infrequent large-scale disturbance
A= no distrubance
B=-wave = ulva gone
-wave = ulva back again
-small scale disturbance so some boulders affected , some not
C=-infrequent disturbance so boulder 2 not disturbed
-boulder 4 succession took place
The c regime resulted in the highest diversity - C - infrequent small-scale disturbance
203
what level of disturbance has the highest species diversity
-intermediate level of distrubance
204
What is symbiosis
-Describes the situation in which dissimilar organisms live together in close association.The term embraces all types of mutualistic and parasitic relationships
205
What is mutualism
Where the host and parasite benefit from their association , eg plants and pollinators
206
What is commensalism
Where the parasite benefits from relationship but host isnt harmed , eg clownfish and poisonous anemones
207
What is parasitism
Where the parasite harms its host or lives at the expense of its host ,eg corn smut fungus on corn
208
What is parasitoid
Where its the parasite that causes the death of its host ,eg Braconid wasps on tomato hornworm
209
What is phoresis
Where the parasite is transported by the host
210
What is facilitation
Facilitative interactions=interactions between two organisms that benefit at least one of them and harms neither
Both benefit=mutualism
One benefits=commensalism
211
What is a population in ecological terms?
a) All living organisms in an area
b) A group of interbreeding individuals of the same species
c) All abiotic factors in an area
d) Communities of different species
b) A group of interbreeding individuals of the same species
212
Incomplete dominance produces:
a) 1 phenotype
b) 2 phenotypes
c) 3 phenotypes
d) No phenotypes
c) 3 phenotypes
213
Mendel’s principle of independent assortment suggests:
a) Genes always pass together
b) Traits blend in offspring
c) Genes segregate randomly
d) Traits are lost over time
c) Genes segregate randomly
214
Batesian mimicry involves:
a) Two dangerous species mimicking each other
b) A harmless species mimicking a harmful one
c) Convergent evolution
d) Camouflage
b) A harmless species mimicking a harmful one
215
In global air circulation, which condition typically corresponds with zones of descending air?
A. High precipitation and low salinity
B. High pressure and dry conditions
C. Low pressure and storm formation
D. Strong Coriolis effect and high humidity
B. High pressure and dry conditions
216
Which of the following is primarily responsible for the Coriolis effect?
A. Tilt of the Earth's axis
B. Earth's elliptical orbit
C. Earth's rotational velocity differences
D. Gravitational pull of the moon
C. Earth's rotational velocity differences
217
If a wind current is deflected to the left, where is it likely located?
A. Northern Hemisphere
B. Southern Hemisphere
C. Equator
D. Arctic Circle
B. Southern Hemisphere
218
Which of the following biomes is most dependent on actual evapotranspiration (AET)?
A. Tundra
B. Tropical rainforest
C. Desert
D. Savanna
B. Tropical rainforest
219
What causes the rain shadow effect?
A. Winds blowing directly toward the equator
B. Orographic lift leading to condensation and precipitation
C. Low temperatures causing fog to condense
D. Cold ocean currents meeting warm air
B. Orographic lift leading to condensation and precipitation
220
Which zone of a stratified lake experiences the greatest temperature variation throughout the year?
A. Thermocline
B. Hypolimnion
C. Epilimnion
D. Abyssal zone
C. Epilimnion
221
Which of the following is true of osmoregulation in marine environments?
A. Saltwater fish excrete urea to retain water
B. Freshwater fish retain salt through active transport
C. Marine organisms lose water due to osmosis
D. Marine organisms absorb water through their gills
C. Marine organisms lose water due to osmosis
222
Which population growth model assumes unlimited resources and continuous reproduction?
A. Geometric
B. Logistic
C. Exponential
D. Iteroparous
C. Exponential
223
Which of the following is a key assumption of the exponential growth model?
A. Limited resources
B. Predation pressure
C. No immigration or emigration
D. Constant population size
C. No immigration or emigration
224
Which life history trait is associated with longer generation time?
A. Low fecundity
B. Early reproduction
C. Large body size
D. Semelparous strategy
C. Large body size
225
Under which environmental condition is parental care most expected?
A. High rainfall regions
B. Unpredictable environments
C. Low predator density
D. Highly competitive populations
B. Unpredictable environments
226
Which condition supports the evolution of polygamy?
A. Scattered resource availability
B. Biparental care required for offspring survival
C. No energetic cost to reproduction
D. Ability to defend multiple mates or resources
D. Ability to defend multiple mates or resources
227
Which mating system involves one male and one female forming a pair bond?
A. Polygyny
B. Promiscuity
C. Monogamy
D. Polyandry
C. Monogamy
228
According to the logistic growth model, what happens when N = K?
A. Population increases exponentially
B. Birth rate is higher than death rate
C. Growth rate becomes zero
D. Resources are unlimited
C. Growth rate becomes zero
229
define symbiosis
-Describes the situation in which dissimilar organisms live together in close association.The term embraces all types of mutualistic and parasitic relationships
230
graph page 71
231
define mutualism and give an example of obligate mutualsism
Where the host and parasite benefit from their association , eg plants and pollinators
Obligate mutualism-can't exist without each other (Eg -pollinator and plants)
232
define non obligate mutaslim and give an example
Non-obligate mutualism is a relationship between two species where both benefit, but neither depends completely on the other to survive. They can live independently but gain advantages when interacting. eg non obligat mutalism-clownfish and poisonous anemones
233
define parsitism and give an example
Where the parasite harms its host or lives at the expense of its host ,eg corn smut fungus on corn
234
define parasitoid and give an example
Where its the parasite that causes the death of its host ,eg Braconid wasps on tomato hornworm
235
define phoresis
Where the parasite is transported by the host
236
what is a facilitative interaction,mutualism and commensalism
Facilitative interactions=interactions between two organisms that benefit at least one of them and harms neither
Both benefit=mutualism
One benefits=commensalism
237
gives examples of mutualism due to resources
-pollination-nectarivores
-coral and zooxanthellae
-legumes and Rhizobium
-Plants and mycorrhizal
238
give examples of mutualism for habitats
-acacia and ants(enlarged thorns,enlarged nectaries,beltian bodies)
-acacia and nitrogen fixing bacteria
-acacia and mycorrihizal fungi
-acacia and bees
239
revise role of acacia
240
what are the examples of mutualism for both resources and habitat
-coral and zooxanthellae
-coral and crabs
241
mutualism can be used for other resources such as for seed dispersal provide 2 examples of this interaction
-seed dispersal
Specific example;white pine and clarks jay ;ants and elasisome of myrmecochores
242
with mutualism there is an actor , the one who provides benefit to another at energetic cost to itself and the recipitent who recieves the benefit , what does the selection favour (the actor or recipient)
-Selection favours;Reciprocity(prevent cheating) ,if not reciprocated the selection goes against the association
Evidence;nectar robbers-lower rates of pollen transfer
243
what are the environmental effects of mutualism
-High benefit environments ; inhospitable environments , stressful environment
244
245
list the three benefits of commensalism
-Food (eg-seabirds feeding from a dolphin bait ball)
-somewhere to live(microorganisms)
-reproduction(seed dispersal)
246
provide an example of commensalism
-cattle and egret
247
what is intraspecific competition
Competition amongst individuals of the same species for limiting resources
248
define intraspecifc comeptition and what is meant by scramble competition and contest competition
Intraspecific competition
-Competition amongst individuals of the same species for limiting resources
-Scramble competition;all individuals decline in fitness,all individuals have equal access to resources
-Contest competition;some decline , some dont,resources are controlled by some individuals
249
revise density -dependent -page 72
250
provide an example of intraspecific competition
-Great tits
251
define home range and territory
Home range=an area an animal uses in a year
Territory=defended part of home range
252
whats interspecific competition
Competition among individuals of different species for limiting resources
253
what is gauses principle of compeitive exclusion
-Two species with identical niches cant coexist indefinitely
254
provide an example of interspecific compeition
paracecium aurelia and p.caudatum
255
what are the 6 types of interspecific competition
1=consumption (of a shared resource)
2=pre-emption(first to arrive wins)
3=overgrowth(one grows over another)
4=chemical interaction(one harms another )
5=territorial (one detects the other)
6=encounter(non-territorial meetings)
256
Implications of competition in relation to introduced species
-non-native /introduced species
-often better competitors
-direct competition for resources
-indirect competition ; disease effects of paramyxovirus
257
What are the prey defences against predators?
1=physical (spines on acacias)
2=chemical(pheromones/toxins)
3=morphological(mimicry)
4=behavioural(hiding or warning others)
258
What are the predatory hunting tactics
1=ambush (crocodile)
2=stalking(cats)
3=pursuit(cheetah , wolf)
259
The first type of exploitation is herbivory , explain this
-this is the predation on autotrophs
-Plants arent killed but theyre reduced in fitness
260
provide examples of chemical , secondary coumpounds in terms of plant defences
Nitrogen-based
Terpenoids
Phenolics
261
The lotka volterra model is a model for predation , there are two growth models what are they
-LOTKA-VOLTERRA MODEL
two population growth models;
-predators ;birth rate and mortality
-prey;mortality due to predators
262
give an example of predation
-lynx and snowshoe hare
263
what are the three hypothesis for population cycles
1-abiotic-sun spots-has been disregarded
2-biotic intrinsic-has been disragraded
3-biotic extrinsic
264
What are the predators of snowshoe hare
-lynx
-goshawk
-great horned owl
-mink
-long-tailed weasel
-red fox
-coyote
265
with predation , there is a fucntional response define this
-Functional response-more abundant prey=more eating o the prey by the predator
266
there are 3 types of fucntional responses , define these
type1=more food =more consumption
Typ2 = predation increases but rate of increase slows to saturation
Type3 =simialr to 2 but with a leg
267
revise graph page 76
268
define community
grouping of populations of different organism found living together , organisms interact
269
define guild
Guild-group of species that depend on the same resource for survival and reproduction
270
define functional group
Functional group-group of species that performs the same function within the ecological community
271
describe the community structure of dung beetles
Dwellers-go through the entire developmental process within one unmodified dung pat
-tunnellers-bury the dung
-rollers-move the dung and hide it
272
define dominant species and keystone species
Dominant species (eg spruce trees)
-have greatest abundance and biomass
Keystone species
-one whose effect is large and disproportionately large relative to its abundance
273
describe the difference betwene a keystone and dominant species
-high biomass + high abundance = dominant species
-low abundance , low biomass but high ecological impact keystone species
-graph page 77
274
how do you work out linkage density using food webs
linkage density =L/S
L = number of links(lines)
S= number of species
275
explain the effects of fragmentation in terms of landscape ecology
-Fragmented forests have lower species richness than unfragmented forest area of the same size but suitability of matrix has a mitigating effect
276
where does an ecological trap occur
An ecological trap occurs when organisms are attracted to a habitat that appears suitable based on environmental cues, but is actually low-quality or harmful for survival or reproduction
277
Which of the following best defines coevolution?
A) The evolution of isolated species
B) Independent evolution of similar traits
C) Reciprocal evolutionary influence between species
D) Random trait development
E) Gradual environmental adaptation
C) Reciprocal evolutionary influence between species
278
Batesian mimicry involves:
A) Two dangerous species mimicking each other
B) Camouflage blending
C) A harmless species mimicking a harmful one
D) Shape-shifting behavior
E) Parasitism
F) Self-sacrifice
G) Warning signals shared between dangerous species
C) A harmless species mimicking a harmful one
279
Crypsis is best described as:
A) Mimicking predators
B) Blending into environment
C) Developing spines
D) Chemical spray
E) Sudden coloration shift
F) Playing dead
G) Behavioural mimicry
B) Blending into environment
280
Which concept states species evolve due to ongoing mutual pressure?
A) Hardy-Weinberg
B) Coevolution
C) Radiation
D) Natural Selection
E) Shelford’s Law
F) Convergent evolution
G) Metapopulation theory
B) Coevolution
281
2. Which of the following is true about global air circulation? A. Air descends at the equator B. Air ascends at high-pressure zones C. Low pressure occurs where air ascends D. Coriolis effect causes deflection to the left in Northern Hemisphere E. Rotation is slower where circumference is larger F. Solar energy does not affect air movement G. Air pressure is constant across latitudes
C. Low pressure occurs where air ascends
282
A nutrient source releases nutrients:
A. Slower than absorption
B. Faster than absorption
C. Equally with absorption
D. Not at all
E. Only when heated
F. Based on sunlight
B. Faster than absorption
283
Artificially stabilized small boulders resemble which natural condition?
A. Small unstable boulders
B. Mid-sized disturbed boulders
C. Large stable boulders
D. Freshly overturned rocks
E. Intertidal pools
F. Rocky cliff
C. Large stable boulders
284
7. In the absence of disturbance, dominant algae on boulders are:
A. Fucus
B. Ulva
C. Codium
D. Gigartina
E. Ascophyllum
F. Laminaria
D. Gigartina
285
An example of commensalism is:
A. Coral and zooxanthellae
B. Cattle and egret
C. Legumes and Rhizobium
D. Mycorrhizal fungi and plants
E. Clownfish and anemone
F. Acacia and ants
B. Cattle and egret
286
Which is an example of facilitation?
A. Predation
B. Intraspecific competition
C. Mutualism
D. Cannibalism
E. Herbivory
F. Mimicry
C. Mutualism
287
whats facilitation
Facilitation is a process where one species positively influences another, often by improving its environment or reducing stress.
288
Which type of mutualism includes habitat and resource sharing?
A. Coral and zooxanthellae
B. Nectar robbers
C. Mycorrhizae and legumes
D. Acacia and Rhizobium
E. Coral and crabs
F. Ants and aphids
A. Coral and zooxanthellae
289
whats scramble competition and does fitness increase / decrease
Scramble competition is a type of competition where all individuals in a population have equal access to a limited resource, but none get enough to thrive when the resource becomes scarce. As a result, everyone’s fitness decreases
290
Scramble competition leads to:
A. Equal fitness increase
B. Unequal access
C. Equal decline in fitness
D. No competition
E. Genetic variation
F. Complete exclusion
C. Equal decline in fitness
291
compare scramble and contest competition , mention fitness for both of them
Contest competition occurs when certain individuals gain access to resources while excluding others. Unlike scramble competition (where resources are shared but insufficient), contest competition results in winners and losers — some individuals secure enough to survive and reproduce, while others get little or nothing
with regards to scramble compeition , there if an equal decline in fitness
292
Which defines contest competition?
A. Equal resource access
B. No decline in fitness
C. Some individuals monopolize resources
D. Group feeding
E. Social cooperation
F. Shared habitat use
C. Some individuals monopolize resources
293
compare parasitoids to parasites
Parasitoids are organisms that ultimately kill their host as part of their life cycle
Parasites, on the other hand, typically harm but do not kill their host, living at the host’s expense (fitness) over time.
294
whats a guild and provide an example
A guild is a group of species that exploit the same resources in a similar way, regardless of their taxonomic classification.
eg-pollinators
295
whats a functional group and provide an example
A functional group is a set of species that perform similar ecological roles or functions, regardless of their taxonomy
eg-seed dispersers
296
What were the first eukaryotic organisms?
Single-celled protists
297
What did single-celled protists independently give rise to?
Plants, fungi, and animals
298
How did endomembranes in eukaryotic cells likely evolve?-
From invagination (infolding) of the plasma membrane
299
What is the function of microtubules?
Cell shape, organelle and chromosome movement, muscle contraction
300
What is the function of microfilaments?
Cell shape, motility, cytoplasmic streaming, cell division
301
What is the function of keratin proteins?
Cell shape, anchoring the nucleus, supporting the nuclear lamina
302
How do eukaryotic flagella differ from prokaryotic ones?
They are not homologous; this is an example of parallel evolution
303
From what did plastids evolve?
Endosymbiotic cyanobacteria
304
Which groups have primary plastids?
Viridiplantae, Rhodophyta, Glaucophytes
305
What did secondary endosymbiosis lead to in algae?
Increased diversity and more plastid membranes
306
How do most protists obtain energy?
They are heterotrophs that absorb or ingest food
307
What distinguishes diplomonads?
Multiple flagella, two nuclei, no plastids
308
What distinguishes parabasalids?
No plastids and reduced mitochondria (hydrogenosomes)
309
What feature is unique to euglenozoans?
A spiral or crystalline rod inside the flagella
310
What is a kinetoplast?
A DNA-containing organelle in kinetoplastids
311
What is paramylon?
A glucose storage polymer found in euglenids
312
What distinguishes brown algae?
Multicellular, complex algae evolved via secondary endosymbiosis
313
What are alveoli in alveolates?
Membrane-bound sacs beneath the cell membrane
314
What nuclei do ciliates have?
Macronucleus and micronucleus
315
What pigment gives red algae their color?
Phycoerythrin
316
What are the three ways chlorophytes evolved complexity?
Colonies, multinucleate filaments, multicellular forms
317
How do amoebozoans move?
Using lobe- or tube-shaped pseudopodia
318
What is the feeding stage of a plasmodial slime mold called?
Plasmodium
319
What causes the annulus of a fern sporangium to snap back and dislodge spores?
Water loss causes air bubbles to form, snapping the annulus back
320
What structural feature helps ferns release spores?
Annulus with dead water-filled cells and thin outer walls
321
What are the dispersal conditions for horsetail spores?
Unfurled in dry conditions, furled in wet conditions
322
What unique structure do horsetail spores have?
Four appendages attached to each spore
323
What structure gives club mosses their name?
Strobilus on reproductive shoots
324
Are club mosses homosporous or heterosporous?
heterosporous
325
What defines spermatophytes?
Plants with seeds (gymnosperms and angiosperms
326
What are the five life cycle modifications in seed-bearing plants?
Heterospory, gametophyte reduction, female gametophyte retention, pollination, seed habit
327
What is the difference between gymnosperms and angiosperms?
Gymnosperms have exposed seeds; angiosperms have enclosed seeds
328
What is the main trend in plant evolution regarding gametophytes?
Reduction and protection of gametophytes
329
What does heterospory mean?
Production of two different types of spores
330
Which tissues give rise to microspores and megaspores?
Microsporangia = microspores (male); megasporangia = megaspores (female)
331
How many integuments do gymnosperms and angiosperms have?
Gymnosperms = 1 integument; angiosperms = 2 integuments
332
What is the main evolutionary trend in sperm structure in plants?
From flagellated to non-flagellated sperm
333
What are the four gymnosperm phyla?
Ginkgophyta, Cycadophyta, Gnetophyta, Coniferophyta
334
Describe the major stages of the pine lifecycle
Pine tree produces cones, pollen enters ovule, fertilization, seed develops
335
What happens during pine pollination and fertilization?
Pollen enters micropyle, sperm nuclei fertilize, seed develops
336
What feature defines angiosperms compared to gymnosperms?
Seeds enclosed in fruits
337
What is double fertilization in angiosperms
One sperm fertilizes egg, other fuses with polar nuclei
338
What are the two sperm cells used for in double fertilization?
One forms zygote (embryo), one forms endosperm
339
What are the key differences between monocots and dicots?-
Monocots: parallel veins, scattered vascular tissue; Dicots: net veins, ringed vascular tissue
340
Name three basal dicot groups
Amborella, water lilies, star anise
341
What similarities support angiosperm evolution from gymnosperms?
Two integuments, egg development similar
342
What are key fungal traits?
-cell walls made from chitin
-Heterotroph-absorb nutrients
-No chlorophyll
-Growth through hyphae
-Reproduction through spores
-Can be saprophytic(feeding of dead tissue) or parasitic
343
What is the origin of fungi?
Single-celled aquatic ancestor, related to animals
344
What is the fungal body structure called and how do they grow?
Hyphae (coenocytic or septate); grow via tip elongation
345
what are the three major clades of bilateria
-lophotrochozoa , ecdysozoa , deuterostomia
346
mollusks are protosomes,what is meant by this
-Protostomic development- Mollusks are protostomes, meaning during embryonic development, the blastopore (the first opening formed) becomes the mouth
-Mantle cavity (water filled)
-Unsegmented body
-shell (periostracum,ostracum,nacre,mantle)
-Radula - feeding organ of molluscs
-Foot
-Most terrestrial snails are hermaphroditic
-Hatch into trochophore larvae,veiglier larvae or miniature adults
Reproduction:often planktonic larval stage
The life cycle of marine molluscs includes a ciliated larvae , the trochophore
-Mollusks, especially gastropods (e.g., snails), have a specialized feeding organ called a radula. It’s a toothed, tongue-like structure used for scraping or cutting food, often algae or plant matter.
347
how many layers to triploblasts have
3
348
what are the classes of arthropods
-chelicerata
-myriapoda
-crustacea
-hexpoda
349
whta are the characteristics of hexapods
-three pairs of legs
-Three tagmata
-Adults have two pairs of wings
-On repair of antenna
-Compound eyes
-Tracheal system for respiration
-Mouth parts contain madaparts
350
echinorderms are bilaterains and deuterostomes and have pentardarial symmetry, they are made up of 5 extant classes , which are
-Sea star
-Brittle star
-Sea urchin
-Sea lilly
-Sea Cucumber
351
all chordates have 4 unique traits , what are they
notochord,dorsal nerve cord,post anal tail,phayngeal slits
352
