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1
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3
Q

What is photosynthesis?

A

Using light to synthesize nutrients

Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and some other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy.

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4
Q

Define heterotrophy.

A

Obtaining nutrients by consuming other organisms

Heterotrophs cannot produce their own food and rely on other organisms for sustenance.

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5
Q

What is mixotrophy?

A

Using different sources of energy

Mixotrophic organisms can utilize both autotrophic and heterotrophic methods to obtain energy.

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6
Q

What is an amoeboid?

A

Type of cell with the ability to alter its shape

Amoeboid cells can change their form to move and capture food.

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7
Q

List the main taxonomic ranks in biological classification.

A
  • Domain
  • Kingdom
  • Phylum
  • Class
  • Order
  • Family
  • Genus
  • Species

These ranks help in the systematic categorization of organisms.

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8
Q

What are stromatolites?

A

Fossilized layered microbial mats

Stromatolites are significant as they provide evidence of early prokaryotic life.

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9
Q

What are liposomes?

A

Droplets of abiotically produced organic compounds

Liposomes are formed when lipids are mixed with water and can grow by engulfing smaller liposomes.

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10
Q

What was the Miller-Urey experiment?

A

Test of the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis by simulating early Earth conditions and detecting amino acids

This experiment provided evidence for the abiotic synthesis of organic compounds.

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11
Q

Define chemoautotroph.

A

Carbon from inorganic carbon, energy from oxidation of inorganic molecules

Chemoautotrophs play a crucial role in ecosystems, especially in extreme environments.

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12
Q

Define chemoheterotroph.

A

Carbon from breakdown of organic substances, energy from oxidation of organic molecules

Chemoheterotrophs include many animals and some bacteria.

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13
Q

What are protobionts?

A

Aggregates of abiotic monomers and polymers surrounded by a membrane

Protobionts are thought to be precursors to living cells.

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14
Q

What are ribozymes?

A

RNA with enzymic catalytic properties

Ribozymes suggest that RNA could have played a critical role in early life.

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15
Q

List Darwin’s evidence for evolution.

A
  • Plant and animal breeding
  • Paleontology
  • Embryology
  • Biogeography
  • Comparative anatomy

These areas provide support for the theory of evolution through natural selection.

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16
Q

What is natural selection?

A

The process by which better adapted individuals survive and reproduce

Natural selection is a key mechanism of evolution.

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17
Q

What is mutation pressure?

A

Some parts of the genome are more prone to mutation

Mutation pressure can lead to increased frequency of certain mutations in a population.

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18
Q

What is random genetic drift?

A

Chance events that can lead to loss of alleles and reduced genetic variation

This phenomenon has a more significant effect in small populations.

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19
Q

What is gene flow?

A

Genetic exchange between populations due to migration of fertile individuals or gametes

Gene flow can increase genetic diversity within a population.

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20
Q

Define prokaryotes.

A

Bacteria and Archaea, mostly unicellular and reproduce by binary fission

Prokaryotes are characterized by their lack of a membrane-bound nucleus.

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21
Q

What are the common shapes of prokaryotes?

A
  • Spheres
  • Rods
  • Helices

These shapes are fundamental to their identification and classification.

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22
Q

What is cell adhesion?

A

The ability of cells to stick together

Cell adhesion is crucial for the formation of tissues and organs.

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23
Q

What is terminal differentiation?

A

Once a cell has specialized, it cannot return to its unspecialized state

This process is vital for the development of multicellular organisms.

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24
Q

How do prokaryotes exhibit motility?

A

They are capable of directional movement due to flagella

Flagella allow prokaryotes to move toward favorable environments.

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25
Name a common human pathogen.
* Staphylococcus * Salmonella * Borrelia * Helicobacter * Clostridium ## Footnote These bacteria can cause various diseases in humans.
26
What is the significance of eukaryotic organelles?
They evolved from prokaryotic ancestors through endosymbiosis ## Footnote This process led to the development of complex cellular structures.
27
What are the components of the endomembrane system?
* Nuclear envelope * Endoplasmic reticulum * Golgi apparatus * Lysosome * Autophagosome ## Footnote The endomembrane system is involved in various cellular processes, including protein synthesis and transport.
28
What proteins make up the cytoskeleton?
* Microtubules (tubulin) * Microfilaments (actin) * Intermediate filaments (keratin filaments) ## Footnote The cytoskeleton provides structural support and facilitates movement within the cell.
29
What is endosymbiosis?
The process by which one organism lives inside another, leading to the evolution of organelles like mitochondria and plastids ## Footnote Endosymbiosis is a key concept in understanding the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
30
What is secondary endosymbiosis?
Occurs when a heterotrophic protist engulfs an alga containing plastids ## Footnote This process contributes to the diversity of algal groups.
31
List the protist supergroups.
* Excavata * SAR * Archaeplastida * Unikonta ## Footnote These supergroups categorize protists based on genetic and morphological characteristics.
32
What defines Excavata?
Includes diplomonads and parabasalids ## Footnote These groups are characterized by unique features such as multiple flagella and reduced mitochondria.
33
What are diatoms?
Unicellular organisms with glasslike walls composed of hydrated silica ## Footnote Diatoms are a significant group within the Stramenopila, known for their intricate silica structures.
34
What is phycoerythrin?
An accessory pigment found in red algae ## Footnote Phycoerythrin gives red algae their characteristic color and is important for photosynthesis.
35
What are euglenids characterized by?
An anterior pocket from which one or two flagella emerge ## Footnote Euglenids can be photosynthetic or heterotrophic.
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37
What are the three mechanisms by which complexity has evolved in chlorophytes?
* Formation of colonies of individual cells * Repeated division of nuclei without cytoplasmic division to form multinucleate filaments * Formation of true multicellular forms by cell division and cell differentiation ## Footnote These mechanisms contribute to the diversity and complexity seen in chlorophytes.
38
What does Unikonta include?
* Animals * Fungi * Protists ## Footnote Unikonta is a major grouping in the eukaryotic tree of life.
39
What are the characteristics of Amoebozoans?
* Amoeba with lobe or tube-shaped pseudopodia * Includes slime molds, tubulinids, and entamoebas ## Footnote Amoebozoans are a diverse group of protists with unique feeding and reproductive strategies.
40
What are the two lineages of slime molds?
* Plasmodial slime molds * Cellular slime molds ## Footnote These lineages exhibit different life cycles and structures.
41
What is the importance of the colonization of land by plants?
* Altered the composition of air increasing oxygen content * Created habitats for other organisms * Provided a food source for animals * Harvested energy from the sun and converted it to biomass ## Footnote The colonization of land by plants was a pivotal event in Earth's history.
42
What distinctive traits do charophytes share with land plants?
* Chloroplasts with chlorophyll a and b * Cell walls containing cellulose * Genetic evidence supporting a common ancestor * Peroxisome enzymes minimizing organic compound loss * Similarities in cell division * Sporopollenin protecting exposed zygotes ## Footnote These traits indicate a close evolutionary relationship.
43
What does water provide to plants?
* Nutrient transport * Reproductive medium * Support * Prevention of desiccation * Stable temperature * Buffering from solar radiation ## Footnote Water is essential for plant survival and growth.
44
What is the solution to desiccation in land plants?
Formation of a cuticle layer with stomata ## Footnote The cuticle minimizes water loss and is crucial for survival on land.
45
What are the major features found in land plants but not in charophytes?
* Apical meristems * Multicellular gametangia * Alteration of generations * Walled spores produced in sporangia ## Footnote These features contribute to the success of land plants.
46
What are the distinguishing factors between different phyla of cryptogams?
* Mode of reproduction * Water relations * Habitat * Presence of leaves, roots, stems, flowers ## Footnote These factors help classify lower plants.
47
What defines cryptogams?
* Lower plants * Seedless plants * Spore-bearing plants * Non-flowering plants ## Footnote Cryptogams encompass a wide variety of plant forms.
48
What are bryophytes characterized by?
* Lack of complex vasculature * Small size * Rely on capillary movement of water * Rhizoids instead of true roots * Usually dioecious ## Footnote Bryophytes are essential components of many ecosystems.
49
What dictates bryophyte growth habits?
Absence of vascular tissues prevents tall structures ## Footnote This limitation affects their ecological niches.
50
What are the two main stages in the alternation of generations in mosses?
* Gametophyte * Sporophyte ## Footnote Each stage has distinct roles in the life cycle of mosses.
51
How are gametophytes anchored in bryophytes?
* By rhizoids ## Footnote Rhizoids play a crucial role in stability but do not function as true roots.
52
What are the characteristics of liverworts?
* 6000 extant species * Simple thallus * Dominant gametophyte * Reproduce asexually by budding ## Footnote Liverworts are a diverse group of non-vascular plants.
53
What is a key evolutionary innovation in vascular cryptogams?
Development of a vascular system ## Footnote This innovation allows for greater height and complexity in plant structures.
54
What is the significance of Cooksonia?
* First land plant to show apical dichotomous branching * First plant to have vascular tissues ## Footnote Cooksonia marks a significant evolutionary transition.
55
What happens during the release of spores from the sporangium?
Dehiscence involving the annulus ## Footnote This mechanism is crucial for spore dispersal in ferns.
56
What are the characteristics of ferns?
* Rhizome and true roots present * Small gametophyte * Large independent sporophyte * Homosporous ## Footnote Ferns are a diverse and ancient group of vascular plants.
57
What distinguishes seed plants from seedless plants?
* Non-flagellated sperm * Use of wind/animals for dispersal * Ability to travel vast distances * Survive for long periods ## Footnote These adaptations enhance reproduction and survival.
58
What advantages does gametophyte miniaturization offer in seed plants?
* Moist environment prevents drying out * Protection from UV * Nutrients supplied by sporophyte ## Footnote This adaptation allows seed plants to thrive in various environments.
59
What are the two types of sporangia in seed plants?
* Megasporangia (female gametophytes) * Microsporangia (male gametophytes) ## Footnote This differentiation is essential for sexual reproduction.
60
What is the main difference between spores and seeds?
* Spores are single-celled and susceptible to environmental changes * Seeds are multicellular, have a protective coat, and a nutrient supply ## Footnote This distinction highlights the evolutionary advantages of seeds.
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