Biodiversity under threat Flashcards

Question

3 categories of biodiversity hotspots

Answer 1

- Continental hotspots – richest in terms of biodiversity - Large island hotspots – have distinctive species - Small island hotspots – low in species number but contain a high proportion of endemics

Answer 2

1) Economic Scorecard shows the ability of ecosystems to produce goods and services 2) The Living Planet Index monitors changes over time in the populations of representative animal species in various ecosystems 3) Ecological footprint measures the human impact on the planet 4) Red List of endangered species shows species at risk of extinction 5) Millennium Ecosystem Assessment is a multi-scale assessment by the UN

Answer 3

- The world resources institute (WRI) - measures biodiversity using an ecosystem scorecard which shows the conditions of the world’s major ecosystems and their ability to provide goods and services. - The world resources institute has found the freshwater ecosystems to be the most Eco stressed. - The world resources institute links biology and geography and environment and development. - The world resources institute looks at issues such as food, energy, water, cities, transport and forests.

Answer 4

- An unsustainable high rate of human population growth and natural resource consumption - Inequality in the ownership, management and flow of benefits which threatens the livelihoods of the world’s poorest people. - The concentration of agriculture, forestry and fishing on a narrowing spectrum of products. - Economic systems, developers & businesses that fail to value the environment & its resources - Legal and institutional systems that promote unsustainable exploitation at the expense of more sustainable strategies. - Lack of knowledge and understanding in the management and conservation of biodiversity

Answer 5

- measures biodiversity using the living planet index. The living planet index is developed by monitoring populations of representative animal species (319 marker species) initially in forests, freshwater (194 marker species) and marine ecosystems (217 marker species). - Over time the forest index fell by 12% in spite of improvements in temperate forest cover due to afforestation in MEDCs. - Freshwater biodiversity fell by 40% and marine biodiversity by 30%however shows signs of levelling off. - Grasslands have recently been added to the living planet index as they have shown spectacular decline due to big game hunting and desertification. - The WWF has found that more than ¼ of mammals are endangered.

Answer 6

- annual list of endangered species. Species are placed in 1 of 10 categories ranging from extinct to endangered, to vulnerable and to little concern. - Extinction hotspots include tropical rainforests, tropical grasslands, polar environments and small island environments. Species with large body size are vulnerable from hunting. - Species that have low rates of increase (such as pandas), poor dispersal and migration abilities (polar bears) and are easily predated by alien species or perceived as being a nuisance by humans (such as rats) are the most vulnerable to extinction. - Freshwater ecosystems have the highest percentage of threatened species especially amphibians and reptiles. The red list has found that 10-30% of mammal, bird and amphibian species are currently threatened with extinction

Answer 7

The MEA found that world drylands (tropical grasslands) were under the greatest threat, freshwater and marine ecosystems were under the greatest threat from eutrophication and hypoxia- locally this could lead to ecosystem collapse. -Coral reefs were seen to be particularly at risk. Deforestation of tropical rainforests was concentrated in Brazil and Indonesia with 80% of destruction being conducted in just these 2 countries. The MEA found that more land was converted to crop land 1950-1980 than between 1700 and 1850. ¼ of the earth’s surface is now cultivated for crops. This increase in cultivated land has caused major areas of land degradation in the world’s drylands. The MEA has found that the number of species on the planet is declining (with freshwater systems the most threatened) at an increased rate. Genetic diversity has declined globally especially among cultivated species. The distribution of species is becoming more homogenous and less endemic as a result of global interconnections. According to the MEA the areas with the most habitat loss from 1950 to 1990 were; tropical and sub-tropical dry broadleaf forests, flooded grasslands and savannahs, tropical and subtropical shrublands, temperate forests steppe and woodland and tropical and subtropical coniferous forests. -These losses were linked to development especially in NICs such as Brazil and Indonesia due to increased pressure on land for timber and cropland.

Answer 8

The stern review on the economics of climate change argues that climate change is likely to occur too rapidly for many species to adapt. -The global warming experienced during the last ¼ of the 20th century has already given a hint of ecosystem impacts. Species have been moving pole wards at a rate of 6km a decade. Phonological studies show that seasonal events such as flowering, egg laying and fruiting have been advancing getting earlier by several days each decade. Coral bleaching from warming oceans has increased since the 1980s. This combined with ocean acidification caused by an increased concentration of CO2 in the oceans poses a threat to the wellbeing of coral reefs. Recent research suggests that even a rise of 0.05 to 0.1˚C per decade is more than most species would be able to withstand as they would not be able to move pole wards fast enough. The pace would certainly be too rapid for the evolutionary process in situ adaptation.

Answer 9

- 10% of land species will face extinction. - Coral reef bleaching will increase especially in the southern Indian ocean, the great barrier reef and the Caribbean. - Species-rich tropical mountain habitats are likely to lose many species.

Answer 10

- Between 15% & 40% of land species could face extinction, with most major species groups affected including 25-60% of mammals in south Africa & 15-25% of butterflies in Australia. - Coral reefs could bleach annually in many areas. Almost 5% of the low tundra & 25% of coniferous forest could be lost.

Answer 11

Anything between 20% & 50% of land species could face extinction. - Massive losses in biodiversity expected in hotspots. Large areas of coastal wetlands will be lost as a result of rising sea levels. - Mangroves will be flooded, removing a natural coastal defence. - Coral reefs will die; strong drying in the tropics could lead to the destruction of rainforests.

Answer 12

- Rising sea levels threaten coastal ecosystems (coral mangroves and estuaries - Rising ocean temperatures threaten coral reefs through bleaching - Shifts in climate zones, will stress biomes; migration patterns will be altered; some biomes (tundra; montane forest) may be wiped out

Answer 13

- A widespread and complex problem; some 10-20% of drylands ecosystems are already degrades, grasslands are very vulnerable - Overgrazing climate changing, poor farming practice and population pressure all contribute --Once soil is eroded, ecosystem recovery is very dificult

Answer 14

- Population pressure, poverty and the need to produce food are leading to unsustainable use of ecosystems worldwide - Overfishing, deforestation, conversion of ecosystems into farmland are all major causes of ecosystems and biodiversity loss

Answer 15

- Results in loss of biodiversity and resources for indigenous populations, with knock-on effects on the food web and nutrient cycling. - There are also wider environmental impacts, as the removal of forest cover leads to increased soil erosion and flooding

Answer 16

- the acidification of oceans and acid precipitation on land - nitrate and phosphate pollution in lakes and coastal waters - airborne pollution, for example from the use of DDT - Ozone depletion by CFC

Answer 17

Fire was onece used in Europe an North America to clear forests for settlement and development, but today there is fierce competition for cattle grazing and soya bean production - Fire is an essential part of slash and burn farming practices, but large-scale burning causes of loss of biodiversity. - Controlled fire is used as a management tool on grazing land, for example in maintaining heather on the grouse moors of Scotland or managing ecosystems in National Parks to ensure succession. - Arson poses a major threat, causing hazardous fires capable of destroying rare ecosystems and species.

Answer 18

- For example developing natural habitats for agriculture, mineral working or urban growth, inevitably leads to loss of biodiversity - Modern large-scale agriculture reduces biodiversity, but the impacts can be reduced by creating features such hedgerows, ponds, copses and shelter belts - Overexploitation such as overfishing in the North SEA, can easily unbalance food webs and lead to species extinctions

Answer 19

- Often made for areas where ecosystems are fragile- plants are vulnerable to trampling and animals to disturbance - Its impact depends on the natural carrying capacity, the levels of use and how recreational use is managed - Rapidly expanding recreation and tourist use in damaging ecosystems is evident in near-pristine environments such as Antarctica or the Galapagod

Answer 20

-exploitation of such minerals can be particularly damaging and disruptive, with open cast extraction leaving huge holes and toxic spoil heaps scarring the landscape

Answer 21

- Energy flows | - Nutrient cycling

Answer 22

- Primary producers (green plants) at trophic level 1 convert sunlight into energy by photosynthesis. - As energy is lost through respiration at each stage of the process, the amount of biomass at each trophic levels decreases - A food chain exists between the trophic levels. - e,g, caterpillars eat leaves, small birds eat, caterpillars and birds for prey catch small birds - People catch or harvest various tertiary consumers

Answer 23

- Circulation of elements from the environment to organisms and back again to the environment - Nutrients are store in three part of the ecosystem: in the soil, biomass and in surface litter - They cycle between them via 3 pathways: Uptake or growth pathway,compounds of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium are taken from the soil by plants. As plants and animals die they contribute nutrients to the litter store via the fallout pathway - The decay pathways is formed by the decomposition of litter to humus. People can have an impact on the cycle by adding nutrients via fertilisers, by reducing the biomass through overharvesting and deforestation, and by degrading the soil. Once deprived of nutrients it is vulnerable to erosion

Answer 24

- They have enhanced survival rates, because they are more efficient competitors than native species - They lack any native predator - They are not succeptible to indigenous diseases

Answer 25

- Game species such as pheasants and rainbow trout, mainly for sporting purposes - Plant species for scenic purposes. rhododendron brought from the Indian subcontinent in the 18th century to add colour to the great English estates. However, they hinder the development of natural vegetation and the regeneration of woodland. National Parks and nature reserves empty programmes to eradicate them to give native flora a chance to flourish - Species can be bought in for a particular purpose. The hedgehog was imported from the Scottish mainland to the Outer Hebrides to deal with a plague of garden slugs. Unfortunately the hedgehogs developed a taste for ground nesting birds’ populations which dwindled at an alarming rate.

Answer 26

- Some alien species arrive by ship. For example the zebra mussel arrived in north America from the Caspian Sea in ships ballast water or possibly clinging to the sides of ships. With the completion of the St Lawrence Seaway, ocean-going ships brought these mussels to the great lakes. - In the absence of predators they multiplied in Lake Erie to a staggering 70,000 per m² and reduced phytoplankton by 80%. This allowed greater light penetration and led to algal blooms, which lower the quality of the lake water. - As these mussels grow on each other and other shells such as clams they block water intakes and outlets causing power stations to shut down for cleaning. - Air transport was responsible for introducing snakes to the pacific island of Guam with disastrous results for the food web.

Answer 27

- Excess nutrients in the soil, usually in the form of nitrates and phosphates, are washed into lakes and rivers. - This is a natural process, but it has been increased by human activity, particularly through the use of chemical fertilisers and detergents, the release of farmyard slurry and the removal of hedgerows, which causes increased soil erosion. Many lakes are now overloaded with nutrients

Answer 28

Eutrophication

Answer 29

- Initially the extra nutrients reaching ponds and lakes lead to the increased growth of water plants. However, soon microscopic plants proliferate causing algal blooms. - This blocks out light in lower depths reducing the number of large plants. - Zooplanktons are primary consumers and feed on the algae. - As plants die they have to eat more and more zooplankton. This causes the algae to increase. - Dead algae accumulate rapidly and this is gradually broken down by bacteria; however this uses up the oxygen in the water. Falling oxygen levels leads to the death of both plants and animals and consequently the food chain collapses and the water body can no longer support life.

Answer 30

- Destruction=total clearance | - degradation=loss of quality

Answer 31

-It represents the safe level of harvest that can be hunted/caught/utilized without harming the individuals ecosystem

Answer 32

- Maximum sustainable yield (MSY) | - Optimum sustained yield (OSY)

Answer 33

- the greatest harvest that could be taken indefinitely and leave the system intact. Usually this is only exceeded by commercial activities - Harvesting wild plants and fish is part of the subsistence lifestyle of indigenous people and is usually sustainable - Shooting elephants for ivory, harvesting shellfish and logging in natural forests exceeds maximum sustainable yields, the target species and their habitats become threatened

Answer 34

-used as a compromise as it is a lower level of yield and will not destroy the aesthetic or recreational value of the ecosystem but will allow multiuse for the benefit of the whole community.

Answer 35

There are problems with modelling the sustainable yield as there us frequently conflicting information on the number of species. - For example fishermen rarely agree with researchers on the numbers of fish species. - There is also a problem in assessing populations as often environments have no definite boundaries. - The carrying capacity of the habitats and their population numbers fluctuate. This causes the modelling and management for conservation a highly complex process.

Answer 36

- The RAMSAR convention- a wetland conservation treaty signed in 1971 and adopted by 147 countries. - The world heritage convention- designates and protects outstanding cultural and natural sites. It was first signed in 1972 and has over 180 countries’ signatures. - The convention on international trade in endangered species was first signed in 1973 and has been adopted by 16 countries. - The convention on the conservation of migratory species of wild animals was signed in 1979 and by 2005 adopted by 90 countries to prevent the shooting of migrating birds. - The UN convention on the law of the sea has been ratified by 148 countries

Answer 37

- TNCs are involved in ecosystem management. Increasingly TNCs are moving to greener strategies for long term benefit and to improve their public image. TNCs also drive innovation and technology, sometimes for the common good but often to the detriment of ecosystems. - All have environmental reports and their decisions concerning locations to exploit can have a huge impact on biodiversity in the rainforest locations (logging/mining/biofuels). Collecting wild plants for pharmaceutical research can affect the gene pool. TNCs can sponsor biodiversity and conservation schemes to promote biodiversity.

Answer 38

- Different arms of the United Nations (an intergovernmental organisation (IGO)) are responsible for CITES, world heritage sites and helped with the millennium ecosystem assessment. - Global treaties, scientific research and monitoring are important aspects in their work. Other IGOs involved in ecosystem management include the World Bank, the world trade organisation and the international tropical timber organisation

Answer 39

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are involved in ecosystem management. Some NGOs such as the WWF and the nature conservancy help to manage conserved areas. - Other NGOs such as friends of the earth and Greenpeace campaign to keep environmental issues in the media and lobby governments and IGOs. - WWF work in more than 100 countries its mission is to stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and build an environment where people live in harmony with nature. - NGOs can carry out scientific management project seahorse carried out scientific research to conserve environments for birds.

Answer 40

- Establish and conserve genetic biodiversity, protect various areas and species and regulate damaging activities such as using polluting agro-chemicals or releasing invasive species - Manage natural resources providing clean air, water or open space. - They fund preservation/conservation and development. often by systems of taxes and subsidies

Answer 41

Indigenous people are often dependent on biodiversity for basic survival. For many local groups biodiversity has spiritual significance. - Local tribes often have good knowledge of local plants and their usage such as traditional medicine. - Local fishers and farmers can conflict with conservationists because they live a subsistence lifestyle relying on the ecosystem for survival. - Conflict can arise from scientist hunting for new drugs, species with indigenous people who simply want to continue their existence undisturbed. - Local communities can develop sustainable management and work together to save local ecosystems using bottom up schemes to resolve conflicts such as local people who set up a group to protect the mangroves of the Mankato reserve in St. Lucia. - Local governments in the UK manage local reserves such as Paul Holme strays in east Yorkshire in cooperation with the wildlife trust.

Answer 42

The most diverse group. All individuals have individual morals, beliefs and needs on each ecosystem. - Some individuals such as David Attenborough, bono and Paul McCartney have the ability to reach a global audience and push for change. - In MEDC countries ethical consumerism is increasing people buying dolphin friendly tuna. Spiritual and recreational demands mean that areas such as the Galapagos and arctic are experiencing an influx of tourists. - Individual farmers manage the environment for food consumption now subsidised to deliver environmentally friendly farming to add to biodiversity. - Individual consumers make decisions about their consumption for example whether to use environmentally friendly products such as organic products or be Eco-tourists to conserve biodiversity.

Answer 43

Carry out research, exchange ideas, provides information on biodiversity. Were instrumental in the Millennium Ecosystems Assessment. Set up conferences for World Treaties such as CITES or administer agreements such as UNCLOS

Answer 44

- Areas completely fenced off from local people. - However in the 1980s concepts such as biosphere reserves surrounded by buffer zones for use by local people were developed - In the 21st century, conservation means more than guarding rare species inside fenced, scientific reserves - Economic development is integrated with biodiversity conservation, using a huge variety of sustainable strategies, all adapted to suit the particular habitat & involve local people

Answer 45

- Global strategies and frameworks are often useless when the actual occurrence of the problem is highly localised with many diverse causes. - Global strategies need linking to regional, national and local systems to ensure a unity of purpose and use of budget. - The conflict between the need for survival and economic development and conservation in many of the poorest areas of the world has not been fully understood. In particular a growing population of 3% or more a year cannot feed itself if the hunting and trapping of wild animals and gathering of fuelwood is banned. This is known as the ‘hot dinner’ syndrome. - The policies developed were narrowly based, emphasising protection and failing to see the success of conservation is heavily influenced by socio-economic, cultural and political factors - Many of the quite numerous protected sites were often only protected sites on pare. They were often too small and always county based. Together they only covered 6% of the earth’s surface and were unevenly distributed by continent.

Answer 46

Biosphere reserves are a designation developed by the UN division UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) in an attempt to create an international network of protected areas encompassing examples of all the earth’s major vegetation and physiographic types. - Biosphere reserves are one of the most common forms of conservation management. - Biosphere reserves use the principle of zoning to conserve core ecological areas whilst allowing some economic development such as ecotourism or managed hunting or logging. - They were primarily created to promote and demonstrate a balanced relationship between humans and the biosphere. In line with this requirement each reserve should have.

Answer 47

- A buffer zone or zones clearly identified and surrounding or contiguous with the core area of areas where only activities compatible with the conservation objectives are allowed. - An outer transition area where sustainable resource management practices are promoted and developed. - Achieving the 3 interconnected functions of conservation, development and logistic support. - Focusing on a multi-stakeholder approach with particular emphasis on the involvement of local communities in management - Integrating cultural and biological diversity especially the role of traditional knowledge in ecosystem management

Answer 48

- Recreating wetlands (river restoration) or linking up small fragmented reserves to produce a larger, more climate-proof reserve e.g. Great Fen Project in East Anglia - Require costly land purchases, so they have to emphasise local benefits such as recreation. - Restoration of derelict sites such as spoil heaps, mines and quarries is even more expensive because the ecosystem and habitat have to be reconstructed virtually from scratch

Answer 49

- In-situ conservation is the conservation of species in their natural ecosystem - This strategy emphasizes the protection of total ecosystem through a network of ‘protected area’. - Protected areas are an area of land or sea specially designated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity and managed through legal effective means.

Answer 50

- This includes captive breeding with release schemes, and biodiversity banks such as genetic and seed banks in zoos and botanic gardens - Both ex-situ and in-situ conservation work together to increase endangered species and establish-near endangered ones

Answer 51

Zoos can link directly with protected areas, providing stock to release and funds for conservation from ticket sales. - Captive stock such as the and can be used to educate people on hotspots, endemic and endangered species. - Captive breeding buys time but releasing endangered species into the environment is problematic

Answer 52

- 12% land surface is protected less than 1% of marine areas are currently protected - Protected areas are unevenly distributed and fragmented - Shortage of funding for protection - 'protected' does not guarantee successful conservation. Successful conservation needs an efficient, trained ranger service, scientific monitoring of habitat health and understanding of the 'mechanisms' of habitats and their ecosystem - Protecting vast amount from poaching is a challenge - Outside protected areas, biodiversity continues to be affected by pollution, climate change, invasive alien species and unsustainable development.

Answer 53

- Global orchestration- all trade barriers are removed to allow for free trade. Economic growth is high and standard of living improves in developing countries. As there is more money there will be more money to deal environmental problems however will it be too late? This approach will cause a lot of biodiversity loss as development causes many ecosystems to be damaged. - Order from strength- protection of national boundaries will see rich countries close their boarders to protect their own standard of living. This will cause problems of ecosystem degradation in developing countries. This will cause ecosystem collapse and cause huge biodiversity loss. - Adapting mosaic- sustainable management of ecosystems locally and regionally. This approach is more sustainable than approaches 1 & 2. People will need to work together to develop economically but also to maintain ecosystems. - Techno garden- using technology to help provide ecosystem services. Involves an excellent sharing of ideas at a global level, however, people may become over-reliant on technology. Wealth increases in poor countries as knowledge and technology is shared.

Answer 54

Business as usual – increased ecological footprint and no reduction in overshoot - Slow shift – gradually reducing the ecological footprint by developing many sustainable policies so that ecosystems can recover by the year 2100 - Rapid reduction – radical policies to control ecological footprints lead to elimination of overshoot by 2040 - Shrink and share – breaking the world into regions in order to share responsibility for controlling the overshoot problem

Answer 55

- Ensures the ‘best bits’ of areas with the highest levels of biodiversity, substantial levels of endemism (unique rare species) are considered and protected. - Areas under threat are commonly in developing countries where conservation costs are lower due to cheaper labour. This makes hotspots good value for money. - Hotspots now cover marine areas under threat as well as terrestrial ecosystems.

Answer 56

- Even with the addition of marine hotspots, under 2% of the earth & only 0.007% of the oceans are protected by this approach. - The distribution of areas protected is very uneven. Most hotspots are in the tropics such as the rainforest. Many ecosystems such as the tundra, taiga & temperate forest are not included. - Huge areas of the world are not covered including many areas under great threat such as the Arctic Ocean or many outstanding smaller regions such as the Galapagos which are not protected as they do not meet all the 3 criteria to be classed as a hotspot. This could cause polar bears to become extinct. - Hotspots tend to follow a protectionist approach. This entails removing people & their activities from areas under threat. This has occurred in tropical countries where indigenous people have been forced off their land in favour of creating big reserves.

Biodiversity under threat Flashcards

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