BIOL 223 Lecture Flashcards
(165 cards)
1
Q
Define tissue
A
A group of cells that are working together to perform a function.
2
Q
Epithelial Tissue
A
Sheets of cells
3
Q
Connective Tissue
A
Bind things together, protection and support
Highly variable type of tissue.
4
Q
Muscle Tissue
A
Specialized to contract.
Cardiac, Skeletal, Smooth Muscle
5
Q
Nervous Tissue
A
Generates and transmits electrical impulses
Communication between different organs
Excitable tissues
6
Q
Mucous Membrane
A
Lines the passageway that are open to the outside world
Digestive tract.
Epithelial membrane that produces mucous
Held in place by areolar connective tissue.
7
Q
Serou Membrane
A
Lines cavities that are not open to the outside world
Abdominal cavity
Mesothelium lines the membrane and produces serous fluid for reducing friction
Connective tissue on outside not inside.
8
Q
Cutaneous Membrane
A
Organ that covers the body, Skin.
Stratified Squamous epithelial membrane
Deep connective tissue
9
Q
Highly Cellular (epithelial Tissue)
A
Epithelial tissue is highly cellular. it has lots of cells, not a lot of extracellular matrix
10
Q
Avascular (epithelial Tissue)
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Epithelial Tissue lacks a direct blood supply.
All epithelia receive nutrients from the underlying connective tissue.
11
Q
Fuctions of Epithelial Tissue
A
Protection, protects your insides against the outside world
Control Permeability
Secretion
12
Q
Tight Junctions Structure
A
Between two plasma membranes. Primarily found on the Apical border.
13
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Tight Junctions Function
A
has transmembrane proteins that make a seal between adjacent epithelial cells.
Prevent the passage of water and solutes between cells. Selective barrier.
14
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Gap Junctions Structure
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Along the lateral surfaces of the cell. cells are held together by proteins called connexons.
15
Q
Gap Junction Function
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Allow for direct communication between adjacent cells, Allows small molecules and ions to pass through, Coordinate contractions in heart muscles
16
Q
Anchoring Junctions Structure
A
Found around the lateral and basal surfaces.
17
Q
Anchoring Junctions Functions
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Stabilize epithelial tissue. anchor cells to one another or the basement membrane.
18
Q
Anchoring Junction Types (three of them)
A
Desmosomes, Hemidesmosomes, Adherens
19
Q
Actin
A
is a contractile protein which allows Adherens to shape and fold of epithelial tissue
20
Q
Describe how to name different types of epithelial tissue
A
Based on the shape of the cells & Based on layers
21
Q
Simple Squamous Epithelium
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One layer of flat Cells
Kidney tubules, pericardial cavity.
Reduces friction, controls vessel permeability, performs absorption and secretion.
22
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Stratified Squamous Epithelium
A
More than one layer of flat cells
Epidermis of the skin
23
Q
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
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One layer of cube shaped cells
Ducts, thyroid gland
Limited protection, secretion, absorption
24
Q
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
A
More than one layer of cube shaped cells
Ducts of sweat and mammary glands
Protection from physical and chemical stresses
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Simple Columnar Epithelium
One layer of tall skinny cells
Lining of stomach, uterine tubes
Protection Secretion Absorbtion
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Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium
More than one layer of tall skinny cells
Nasal cavity, bronchi
protection, secretion, move mucus with cilia
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Endocrine Glands
No ducts, secrets directly into blood.
Internal Secretions
Secretes Hormones
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Exocrine Glands
Ducts
External Secretions
Sweat glands, Sebaceous gland
29
Describe the function of goblet cells
In the epithelia of intestines and respiratory tract
Secretes mucin, which mixes with water to form mucus
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Merocrine Secretion
Released through secretory vesicles
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Apocrine Secretion
Released by shedding of the apical layer of the cells
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Holocrine Secretion
Release by cells bursting killing the gland cells and replacing them with stem cells.
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Serous Glands secrete a Serous Secretion
Watery Secretion
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Mucous Glands
Mucus Secretion
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Connective Tissue Proper
Connects and protects
Loose and dense connective tissues
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Supportive Connective Tissue
Bone and cartilage are supportive connective tissue
Structural Strength
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Fluid Connective tissue
Blood is a fluid connective tissue
Transport
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Fibroblasts (in Connective Tissue)
Most abundant cell type
Secretions make up the extracellular matrix
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Fibrocytes (in Connective Tissue)
Second most abundant cell type
“Mature” fibroblasts
Maintain connective tissue fibers
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Adipocytes (in Connective Tissue)
Fat cells
Stores energy
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Mesenchymal Cells (in Connective Tissue)
Stem cells that respond to injury or infection, can differentiate into other types of cells
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Macrophages (in Connective Tissue)
Large phagocytic cells of the immune system
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Mast Cells (in Connective Tissue)
Stimulate inflammation
Histamine (vasodilator makes more blood come to injury) and heparin (anticoagulant stops bleeding)
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Collagen Fibers (in Connective Tissue)
Most common fibers in connective tissue proper
Long straight and unbranched
Strong and flexible
Resists force in one direction
High tensile strength
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Elastic Fibers (in Connective Tissue)
Contain protein Elastin
Branched and wavy
Return to original length after stretching
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Reticular Fibers (in Connective Tissue)
Form a network of interwoven fiber to support the functional cells
Strong and flexible
Resists forces in many directions
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White Fat
Is located in Adipose tissue. It is the most common fat found in the body. It stores fat and slows heat loss
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Brown Fat
Is located in Adipose tissue. Found primarily in babies and young children. Some in adults but not alot. More vascularized. Breakdown of lipids to release energy and warm bodies.
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Areolar Connective Tissue Structure
Elastic fibers produce an open framework - looks kind of like a spider web
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Areolar Connective Tissue Function
Underlies most epithelia and provides a passageway for capillaries
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Reticular Tissue Structure
Reticular fibers form a three dimensional stroma
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Reticular Tissue Function
Provides support. Support functional cells of organs
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Reticular Tissue Function
Provides support. Support functional cells of organs
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Dense Regular Connective Tissue Structure
Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers
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Dense Regular Connective Tissue Function
High tensile strength and resistance to stretch in one direction
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Dense Irregular Connective Tissue Structure
Collagen fiber orientation is random
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Dense Irregular Connective Tissue Function
Greater strength in multiple direction. In the dermis, stretchy skin
57
List the Major Characteristics of Cartilage
Provides shock absorption and protection. Matrix is a firm gel - chondroitin sulfates. Avascular - Blood does not directly enter the area. Damage is harder to heal.
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Hyaline Cartilage Structure
Most common type of cartilage. Found in joints.
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Hyaline Cartilage Function
Large amount of proteoglycans makes them strong and flexible
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Fibrocartilage Structure
Tough and durable. Thick bundles of collagen fibers
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Fibrocartilage Function
Great for shock absorption. Knee joints intervertebral disc
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Elastic Cartilage Structure
Elastic and collagen fibers
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Elastic Cartilage Function
Support and flexibility. Outer ear
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Major Characteristics of Bone
Hardest connective tissue
Collagen fibers embedded in a mineralized ground substance
Flexible collagen fibers prevent shattering
Osteocytes
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Explain why blood is connective tissues
Contains a watery matrix called plasma
Contains cells and cell fragments
more ground substance than cells that's why it is connective tissue.
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Explain why lymph is connective tissues
forms as interstitial fluid that enters lymphatic vessels
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Skeletal Muscle
Consists of long, thin cells called myofibers
Cells do not divide
new fibers are produced by divisions of myosatellite cells
limited number and ability
Striated voluntary muscle
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Cardiac Muscle
Short, branched striated cells
intercalated discs are highly specialized
cells do not divide
no satellite cells
striated involuntary muscles
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Smooth Muscle
cells are short and spindle shaped
Cells can divide and pericytes can form new cells
nonstriated involuntary muscle
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Cell body, Neurosoma
Contains nucleus and most organelles
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Dendrites
Short branches extending from the cell body
received incoming signals and relay to the soma
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Axon (nerve Fiber)
Long thin extension of the cell body
carries outgoing electrical signals to their destination
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Identify the overall role of glial cells
Support Neurons
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Describe what inflammation is and its benefits
non-specific response intial response to tissue damage. It limits extent of injury, prevents damage from spreading, may even eliminate cause of injury.
initiation of tissue repair and regeneration
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What tissue types regenerate well? (three)
Epithelia, connective tissue, and smooth muscle
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What tissue types regenerate poorly if at all? (two)
Skeletal muscle and nervous tissues
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Cardiac Muscle Regeneration
Damaged cardiac muscles cells are replaced by fibrous tissue through fibrosis. Maintains structural integrity of the heart, but the section won't be able to contract.
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Identify the major components of the integumentary system
Epidermis - > stratified squamous epithelium
Dermis -> areolar connective tissue and dense irregular tissue
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Thin Skin
four layers (strata) of keratinocytes
Covers most of the body
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Thick Skin
five layers (stata) of keratinocytes
Covers the palms of the hands and soles of the feet
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Stratum basale
Attached to basement membrane by hemidesmosomes. Closest to dermis
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Stratum Spinosum
eight to ten layers of keratinocytes bound by desmosomes
produced by division of cells in stratum bassale
Dendritic cells - macrophages associated with the immune system
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Stratum granulosum
three to five layers of keratinocytes
Produce keratin
After production of proteins, cells die. - to far from food source
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Stratum Lucidum - Only in thick skins
flat, dead cells
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Stratum corneum
External Layer
15 to 30 layers of dead ketatinized cells
Exposed cells are shed after two weeks
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Outer papillary layer
Areolar connective tissue
Dermal papilla feed nutrients to the epidermis
Meissner’s corpuscles - tactile corpuscles - light touch and pressure
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Deeper reticular layer
Dense irregular connective tissue
highly vascular
Collagen fibers provide structure and resist stretching
Pacinian corpuscles - deep touch, pressure, fibration
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hypoderms
lies deep to dermis
Stabilizes position of the skin
primarily adipose tissue <- circled
site of subcutaneous injections
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Melanin
Major Skin Pigment
Produced by melanocytes found in stratum basale of epidermis
Protects skin from UV Radiation, small amounts are beneficial
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Phenomelanin
Red-Yellow Pigment
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Eumelanin
Brown-Black Pigment
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Hemoglobin
a protein found in red blood cells for oxygen transport
92
Discuss the information regarding tanning as presented
Exposure to any UV radiation increases melanin production
Immediate response is oxidation of melanin in keratinocytes
increased melanin synthesis last around 10 days after sun exposure
93
Discuss the evolution of skin color
Variations in skin color result from multiple selection pressures
Primarily difference in exposure to UV light
Breaks down folic acid (harm)
Stimulates vitamin d synthesis (beneficial)
ancestral skin color is a result of a compromise between needs for folic acid and vitamin d
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Hair Shaft
Not anchored to follice
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Hair Root
Anchored to hair follice
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Hair Buln
Surronds hair hair papilla
Protect and insulate
Guard openings from particles and insects
serve as sensory receptors
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Anagen
rapid cell division at the hair root
typically last 3-5 years
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Catagen
Transition phase
Typically lasts 2-3 weeks
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Telogen
hair follicle is at rest
typically last 2-4 months
coincides with start of another anagen phase
100
Describe nail structure and function
Protects tips of fingers and toes
made of dead cells packed with keratin
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Nail cuticle
Lunula (pale half moon shaped area), hyponychium
102
Eccrine Sweat Glands
Widely distributed on body surface
Produce hypotonic sweat for thermoregulation
Duct empties at skin pore directly to surface
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Apocrine Sweat Glands
Found in armpits, around nipples, and in pubic region
Secrete products into hair follicles
Produce sticky cloudy secretions
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Sebaceous Glands
Holocrine Glands
Discharge sipid secretion (Sebum)
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Sebum
Lubricates and waterproofs skin
Lubricates and protects hair shaft
inhibits growth of bacteria
secretion stimulated by hormones
106
Describe the overall functions of the integumentary system
Protection from the elements (wind water uv radiation etc.)
Sensory Function
temperature receptors
Thermoregulation
Vitamin D Synthesis
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Sensory Function (Integumentary System)
Hair root plexus, can feel hair movement which way air is blowing
pain receptors
temperature receptors
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Thermoregulation (integumentary system)
Sweat
evaporative cooling
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Vitamin D Synthesis (integumentary System)
Begins in skin with UV radiation synthesizing cholecalciferol from cholesterol
Cholecalciferol is converted to calcidiol in the liver
Calcidiol is converted into active Vitamin D in the kidneys
Essential for calcium and phosphorus absorption
Prevents Rickets
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basal cell carcinoma
most common form of skin cancer also least deadly
Arises from stem cells in the stratum basale
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squamous cell carcinoma
less common than carcinoma more common than melanoma
arises from keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum
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melanoma
least common form of skin cancer most deadly
arises from melanocytes
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Know the importance and components of the ABCDE rule.
A - Asymmetry: Melanoma is not symmetrical
B - Border: irregular border
C - Color: darker than rest of the person skin but tumor can be multiple colors
D - Diameter: bigger the tumor worse it is
E - Evolution: change over time very quickly
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First Degree Burn
Sunburn, Epidermis only. Redding of the skin
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Second Degree Burn
All the way through the epidermis and small bit of the dermis. Blistering
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Third Degree Burn
epidermis and full dermis
typically won't heal on its own will need a skin graft sometimes
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Fourth Degree Burn
Epidermis, Dermis, Underlying tissue
will not heal and will need a skin graft.
118
Describe the primary functions of the skeletal system
Support the body
Protect internal organs
Store and release minerals and fat
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Irregular Bones
Protect internal organs
Not shaped like any of the other bone classifications
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Short Bones
Stability, support and limited motion. carpals, wrist.
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Flat Bones
Muscles attach there and protect internal organs. Cranial bones, parietal and frontal bone.
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Long Bones
Levers for skeletal muscles to work on. Femur, humerus.
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Sesamoid Bones
protect tendons from compressive forces. Everyone has a patella.
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Diaphysis
Shaft of a Long Bone
Medullary Cavity
Compact Bone Walls
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Epiphysis
Wider sections at the end of long bones
Filled with spongy bone
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Metaphysis
Epiphyseal plate or epophyseal line. Neck part of a long bone between the diaphysis and the epiphysis
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Periosteum
Membrane around the bone
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Endosteum
incomplete membrane lining of the bone
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Flat Bone
Looks like a sandwhich
Compact Bone - The bread of the sandwich the outer walls
Diploe - the filling of the flat bone sandwich
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Articulations
where two bones meet, a joint.
Just because two bones meet does not mean there is movement at that joint.
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Projections
Projects above the surface of bone. Trochanters
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Holes
opening or groove in the bone
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osteogenic cells
stem cells that differentiate into osteoblasts, found in periosteum and bone marrow
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Osteoblasts
Build Bone. Synthesize and secrete collagen
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Collagen
is the principal protein of the skin, tendons, cartilage, bone, and connective tissue.
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What Cells are involved in the maintenance of bone and where are they located?
osteocytes are osteoblasts in lacunae and are involved in maintenance of bones
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Osteoclasts
Crush Bones. Resorption of bones and puts it somewhere else
138
Describe the composition of bone matrix
Calcium Phosphate makes up almost two-thirds of bone mass
Collagen makes up the other one-third of bone mass.
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Describe the structure of compact bone
Dense and strong bone
Deep to periosteum
in the diaphysis of long bones
Osteon is the structural unit
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Describe the structure of spongy bone
In epiphyses and diploe
trabeculae
Absorbs stress from multiple directions
lighter bone
Contains red bone marrow
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trabeculae
struts of bone that run in multiple directions
Absorbs stress from multiple directions
142
Explain the blood and nerve supply to the bone: Nutrient Foramen
Small openings in diaphysis for arteries and veins
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Explain the blood and nerve supply to the bone: Spongy Bone
Blood vessels of periosteum penetrate and blood in marrow cavities
144
Describe the structure and function of the periosteum
Periosteum:
Not found within joint cavities
outer fibrous layer and inner cellular layer
fibers are interwoven with those of tendons
perforating fibers
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Perforating Fibers
Fibers that become incorporated into bone tissue
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Endoesteum
Incomplete cellular layer that lines medullarly cavity
Active during bone growth, repair, and remodeling
Covers trabeculae of spongy bone
Lines central canals of compact Bone
Consists of flattened layer of osteogenic cells
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List/identify the different steps of intramembranous ossification
Mesenchymal cells differentiate into cells to produce capillaries, osteogenic cells, and osteoblasts
Early osteoblasts at ossification center and secrete osteoid
Osteoid deposition around capillaries forms trabeculae
Osteoblasts near surface become periosteum
148
give examples of bones formed by intramembranous ossification
Compact and spongy bone are developed from sheets of mesenchyme
flat bones - Clavicles
149
List/identify the different steps of endochondral ossification
How most bones form
Replace hyaline cartilage model with bone
takes longer than intramembranous ossification
mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes
cartilage model and perichondrium form
capillaries penetrate cartilage, the perichondrium is replaced with periosteum, and a primary ossification center forms
Cartilage and chondrocytes continue to grow at ends of bone
Secondary centers of ossification form
Cartilage remains at epiphyseal plate and at joint surfaces
150
Discuss growth in length of bones including the different zone of the epiphyseal plate
Collangen forms on the epiphyseal side
cartilage is ossified on the diaphyseal side
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reserve zones
closest to the epiphysis and secure bone to cartilage
152
Proliferative zone
Stacks of chondrocytes that divide to rplace those that die at diaphyseal end
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Zone of Maturation and hypertrophy
chondrocytes enlarge and secrete matrix which begins to calcify
154
Zone of calcified matrix
chondrocytes are dead, capillaries and osteoblasts begin to penetrate, osteoblasts secrete osteoid on remaining calcified cartilage.
155
Define appositional growth
Growth in width
thickens and strengthens long bones
Layers of circumferential lamellae are added at outer surface
Osteoclasts remove bone matrix at inner surface of bone
156
Define/describe bone remodeling
Matrix is resorbed on one surface and deposited on another
Balance between osteoclasts and osteoblasts
Injury exercise and other stresses can lead to bone remodeling
157
Discuss the effects of exercise on bone
exercise puts new stress or forces on your bones
excerise stimulates osteoblasts to build more bone and they become thicker and stronger.
158
List the different nutrients and hormones needed for bone formation and maintenance
Calcium and phosphorus are required
Vitamin K synergistic role with Vitamin D
Calcium cannot be absorbed without vitamin D
159
hypocalcemia
Low Blood calcium
Decreased coagulation
Decreased muscle contraction
Nerves malfunction and may be hyperactive
Bones become brittle
160
Hypercalcemia
High Blood Calcium
Never are underactive
lethargy
slow reflexes
coma
161
parathyroid hormone
big one for calcium homeostasis
Produced by parathyroid glands in neck
Increases blood calcium ion levels by
Stimulating osteoclast activity (indirectly)
Increasing intestinal absorption of calcium by enhancing calcitriol
secretion by kidneys
Decreasing calcium excretion by kidneys
activates calcitriol
162
calcitriol
activates vitamin D to increase calcium production
163
calcitonin
(most important in growing children and pregnant women)
Secreted by C cells in thyroid gland
Decreases blood calcium ion levels by inhibiting osteoclast activity, decrease bone resorption
Increasing calcium excretion and reducing calcitriol secretion by kidneys.
Decreasing intestinal absorption of calcium
