Biological Bases Flashcards
(156 cards)
1
Q
Central nervous system
A
brain, spinal cord
2
Q
Peripheral nervous system
A
nerves going to and from spinal cord
3
Q
Somatic nervous system
A
sends and receives sensory messages that control voluntary motor movement of the skeletal (striated) muscles; part of PNS
4
Q
Autonomic nervous system
A
controls automatic or involuntary bodily functions of the smooth muscles and glands, including digestion, heart rate, and breathing; maintains homeostasis; part of PNS; includes sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
5
Q
Sympathetic nervous system
A
mobilizing, fight or flight; hormones released in bloodstream to increase respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure and decreases in the processes of digestion and elimination; part of ANS
6
Q
Parasympathetic nervous system
A
energy conserving, relaxed; basic body maintenance, slowing heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, and increasing digestion and elimination; part of ANS
7
Q
Afferent neurons
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sensory neurons that carry information to CNS
8
Q
Efferent neurons
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motor neurons carry information from CNS to muscles and glands
9
Q
Spinal cord regions (top to bottom)
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cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral
10
Q
Quadriplegia
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paralysis of all four limbs; spinal cord severed C1-C5
11
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Paraplegia
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Paralysis of legs; spinal cord severed C6 downward
Severing at C6-C7 = paraplegia and partial paralysis of arms
12
Q
Paresis
A
muscle weakness, may result from incomplete severing of spinal cord
13
Q
Reflexes with spinal cord damage
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reflexes still intact
14
Q
Cerebrum
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made of cerebral cortex and subcortical areas
15
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Cerebral cortex
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part of cerebrum; outside surface of brain; not fully developed at birth; divided into hemispheres and lobes
16
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Left hemisphere
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often dominant (and therefore control language for most people); thinking that is rational, analytical, logical, abstract
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Right hemisphere
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perceptual, visuospatial , artistic, musical, and intuitive activities; emotion
18
Q
Frontal lobes
A
personality, emotionality, inhibition, planning and initiative, abstract thinking, judgment, and higher mental functions (e.g., cognitive flexibility)
Back contains motor control area
Broca’s area in left frontal lobe - controls muscles that produce speech
19
Q
Broca’s area
A
In left frontal lobe, controls muscles that produce speech
20
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Parietal lobes
A
just behind frontal lobes; contain the primary sensory areas that process somatosensory information (light touch, pain , heat, and proprioception)
21
Q
Gerstmann’s syndrome
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involves lesions of the dominant parietal lobe and results in agraphia, acalculia, right-left disorientation, and finger agnosia
22
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Occipital lobes
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back of brain, primary visual cortex
23
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Temporal lobes
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outsides above temples; primary auditory cortex; emotional behavior and memory; Wernicke’ s area is responsible for thinking about and interpreting language
24
Q
Subcortical brain areas
A
Center of the brain and surrounded by cerebral cortex; include the corpus callosum, the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the pituitary, and the limbic system
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Corpus callosum
bridge between cerebral hemispheres allowing communication; part of subcortical areas
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Split-brain patients
corpus callosum severed to reduce seizures
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Thalamus
below corpus callosum; major sensory relay center (except smell), integrates and pr
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Hypothalamus
below thalamus; homeostasis through regulating endocrine system; temperature regulation , hunger, thirst, sex, aggression, and the sleep-wake cycle; sex hormone secretion
“ Five F’ s,” namely fever, feeding, fornicating, fighting, and falling asleep
Includes Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
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Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
controls the body's circadian rhythm
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Pituitary
controlled by hypothalamus; referred to as master endocrine gland; releases hormones to activate adrenal glands; involved in normal and abnormal growth; influences the other endocrine glands including the thyroid, parathyroid, ovaries and testes, pancreas, adrenal cortex, and adrenal medulla
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Limbic system
group of interconnected structures involved with emotional behavior, particularly aggression; these structures include the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, the amygdala, the septum, parts of the thalamus, and parts of the frontal and temporal lobes
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Stimulating amygdala
results in aggression
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Stimulating septum
moderating effect on aggression
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Kluver-Bucy syndrome
removal of amygdala; placidity, apathy, hyperphagia, hypersexuality, and agnosias
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Septal rage
damaged to septum
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Hippocampus
consolidation of memory
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Cerebellum
base of brain behind brain stem; maintaining smooth movement and coordinating motor activity; automatic posture adjustments to maintain balance
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Brain stem
below the subcortical regions and in front of the cerebellum; includes pons, medulla, and reticular activating system (RAS )
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Pons
upper portion of brain stem; with medulla, involved in facial expressions, sleep (including initiation of REM sleep), respiration , movement, and cardiovascular activity
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Medulla
bottom of brain stem just above spinal cord; with pons, involved in facial expressions, sleep (including initiation of REM sleep), respiration , movement, and cardiovascular activity
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Reticular activating system (RAS)
diffuse set of cells in the medulla, pons, hypothalamus, and thalamus that serve as filter for incoming sensory information; stimulation activates cortex into alert wakefulness
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Dendrites
receive information from other neurons; neurons may have hundreds or thoughts
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Cell body
soma; integrates information from dendrites
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Soma
Cell body
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Axon
transmits information from neuron
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Boutons
terminal buttons of axon
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Absolute refractory period
neuron cannot fire
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Relative refractory period
follows absolute refractory period; only very intense stimulation causes firing
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Classical neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (ACh), Catecholamines, Serotonin (5-HT), Amino Acids
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Acetylcholine (ACh)
Most common neurotransmitter; involved in voluntary movement and memory and cognition
Prevalent in hippocampus → deficiency in Alzheimer’s
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Catecholamines
main ones are dopamine and norepinephrine; synthesized from dietary tyrosine and phenylalanine
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Serotonin (5-HT)
mood disorders, aggression, sexual activity, sleep onset, pain perception, and possibly schizophrenia; dietary modification of tryptophan; dysregulation associated with suicidailty and impulsivity
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Amino Acids
GABA, Glycine, Glutamate
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Agonist
any substance that enhances the effect of the neurotransmitter
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Antagonist
any substance that inhibits the neurotransmitter effect
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Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
schizophrenia caused by excess of dopamine; until recently all antipsychotics were dopamine antagonists, blocked postsynaptic receptors; questioned because new antipsychotics don’t work this way
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Substantia nigra
Produces dopamine, part of basal ganglia
Parkinson’s Disease involves degeneration of this region; L-Dopa (precursor of dopamine) used to treat
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Basal ganglia
involved in regulating voluntary movement
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Norepinephrine (noradrenalin)
catecholamine/classical neurotransmitter; involved in mood, pain perception, sleep
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Catecholamine hypothesis of affective disorders
depression associated with relative deficiency of catecholamines (especially norepinephrine), mania associated with catecholamine excess
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Permissive hypothesis of serotonin functioning
deficiency in serotonin permits the expression of affective disorders, but is not sufficient in and of itself; both depression and mania characterized by low serotonin
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GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid) & Glycine
major inhibitory neurotransmitters in the CNS, and they have a calming effect
Insufficient levels associated with anxiety
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Benzodiazepines
GABA agonists, increasing levels
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Glutamate
major mediator of fast excitatory synaptic transmission
Abnormal glutamate transmission suspected in schizophrenia
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Peptide neurotransmitters
Over 25
Regulation of pain and stress
Includes endogenous opioids
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Hypopituitarism
syndrome from undersecretion of pituitary hormones; in children can cause dwarfism, pubertal delay; in adults, can cause gonadal failure and other disorders (e.g., hypothyroidism, diabetes, adrenocortical insufficiency)
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Hyperpituitarism
startling skeletal overgrowth including acromegaly, which occurs after puberty, and gigantism, which occurs before puberty
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Thyroid gland
controls metabolism through secretion of the hormone thyroxin
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Hyperthyroidism
weight loss despite increased appetite, heat sensitivity, sweating, diarrhea, tremor and palpitations, fatigue, agitated depression, insomnia, impaired memory and judgment, and can even involve hallucinations and delusions
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Hypothyroidism
unexplained weight gain, sluggishness, fatigue, impaired memory and intellectual functioning, and sensitivity to cold; As the disorder progresses myxedematous symptoms appear (dry skin, puffiness, sparse hair, decreased cardiac output); most severe form can involve personality changes, paranoid delusions, delirium, mania, and hallucinations
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Grave’s disease
most common form of hyperthyroidism; an immune system disorder that results in the overproduction of thyroid hormones
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Myxedema madness
most severe form of hypothyroidism; can involve personality changes, paranoid delusions, delirium, mania, and hallucinations
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Parathyroid gland
secretion of calcitonin, which plays a role in calcium retention
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Hyperparathyroidism
hypercalcemia with resultant delirium, depression, apathy and personality changes, psychosis, and stupor or coma
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Hypoparathyroidism
neuromuscular symptoms, ranging from parasthesias (tingling) to tetany (including cramps and convulsions); personality changes and delirium
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Pancreas
secretes insulin
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Diabetes Mellitus Type I
called Juvenile Onset or Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM); more serious; associated with difficulty maintaining good control in adolescence
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Diabetes Mellitus Type II
Adult Onset, Non-Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM)
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Diabetes Insipidus
relatively rare, can be caused by lithium toxicity; imbalance in fluids, pee a lot, feel thirsty
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Adrenal cortex
corticosteroids that are involved in the use of energy resources, the inhibition of antibody formation, and inflammation
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Addison’s disease
Undersecretion of corticosteroids, or adrenal insufficiency; symptoms of apathy, weakness, irritability, depression, and gastrointestinal disturbance
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Cushing’s disease
Oversecretion of corticosteroids; symptoms of agitated depression, irritability and emotional lability, difficulties with memory and concentration, and even suicide; adiposity (swelling and fattening) of the face, neck, and trunk
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Hypoglycemia
abnormally low blood sugar; nervousness, irritability, trembling, cold sweats, fatigue, rapid heart rate, hunger, headache, and confusion
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Hyperglycemia
high blood sugar; frequent in diabetes; increased thirst and urination, dehydration, fatigue and weakness, abdominal pain, nausea, and loss of appetite
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Cognitive disorders
includes the effects of stroke, trauma, and brain tumors, as well as dementia, delirium, and amnestic disorders
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Aphasia
language disorder, and results from damage (also called lesions) in the left hemisphere
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Broca’s aphasia
lesions to the left frontal lobe, specifically to the motor strip area, which controls the muscles that produce speech; severe problems with articulation; short phrases punctuated by lengthy pauses; comprehension mostly intact (challenges with passive grammatical constructions); expressive or motor aphasia
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Dysarthria
severe problems with articulation
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Wernicke’s aphasia
lesions in left temporal lobe; no language comprehension; speak fluently but complete nonsense; unaware of problem, expect others to understand; receptive or sensory aphasia
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Conduction aphasia
lesions in the connections between the expressive and receptive speech areas; intact language comprehension, speak fluently, but are unable to repeat verbal phrases; speak fluently but make no sense; able to execute verbal commands because still understand language
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Global aphasia
damage to much of cortex, most language functions impaired (fluency, comprehension, repetition, naming, reading, and writing)
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One-sided neglect
damage occurs to one side of brain; neglect occurs secondary to sensory losses (e.g., forgetting to dress one side of body, eating food from one side of plate)
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Apraxia
inability to carry out purposeful motor movements (e.g., waving), despite the absence of motor or sensory deficits; can move limbs normally but innervates the wrong muscles, puts the limbs in an incorrect position or omits some element of action when asked to carry out a specific motor command; believed to be associated with left brain lesion
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Agraphia
impairment in the ability to write, acquired after the person has learned to write; deficits in a variety of aspects of writing including spelling, word selection, grammar or spatial arrangement; left hemisphere damage in variety of regions (frontal lobe, temporal or parietal regions, and basal ganglia)
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Alexia
acquired partial or complete inability to read; most common cause is stroke to dominant hemisphere; pure alexia (without agraphia) associated with lesions that disconnect the visual association cortex from the temporoparietal cortices
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Prosopagnosia
inability to recognize a familiar face; occurs both retrograde (the inability to recognize the faces of previously known individuals) and anterograde (the inability to learn new faces); thought due to injury to areas of visual cortex
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Anosognosia
lack of awareness of nature of one’s illness
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Hydrocephalus
pathological accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the brain’ s ventricles, causing increased intracranial pressure; over-production or malabsorption of CSF, malabsorption more common; symptoms include dementia, urinary incontinence, or an unsteady gait; caused by head injuries, tumors, meningitis or encephalitis; treated with surgical procedure
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Dementia
evidence of significant cognitive decline in one or more domains (learning and memory, language, executive functioning, complex attention, perceptual-motor, social cognition); interfere with everyday activities
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Alzheimer’s disease
most common form of dementia; more prevalent in women; definitive diagnosis only from biopsy or autopsy; progressive course; cortical dementia, with memory, language, and praxis most affected; evidence for genetic component; Senile plaques (protein globes) and neurofibrillary tangles (pairs of tangled neuronal filaments) are found throughout the cortex and other brain structures, especially the hippocampus (associated with memory) and amygdala; decrease in acetylcholine (ACh), which is involved in learning and memory
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Vascular dementia
more common in men; results from numerous small CVAs (cerebrovascular accidents) or strokes; abrupt onset, rapid course, step-wise; death often withn years of onset; lifestyle changes effective in arresting progress; aspirin, anticoagulants, and antihypertensives to reduce future strokes
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Parkinson’s disease
movement disorder marked by tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, and shuffling gait; slightly more men; neuropsychiatric symptoms, such as psychosis, dementia, and depression
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Parkinson’s dementia
dementia associated with Parkinson’s; sub-cortical dementia, affecting speed of processing and executive functions (planning, organizing, sequencing); associated with degeneration of neurons in the substantia nigra, a section of the basal ganglia; decrease in dopamine; L-Dopa treats movement components but does not alter progression; depression in 50-90%; antidepressants may improve emotional and cognitive functioning
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Bradykinesia
slowed initiation of movement
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Huntington’s disease (chorea)
results from an autosomaldominant gene; involves basal ganglia; acetylcholine and GABA implicated; not apparent until age 35-45; personality change often first sign; progressively deteriorating dementia; choreiform movements, athetosis, and facial grimaces begin months to years after onset of disease
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Choreiform movements
frequent, discrete, brisk jerking movements of the pelvis, trunk, and limbs
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Athetosis
slow writhing movements
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Pick’s disease
rare dementia; clinically indistinguishable from Alzheimer’s; twice as many women as men; onset peaking 50s and 60s; affects predominantly the frontal and temporal lobes; decreases in initiative, episodes of tactless and inappropriate behavior, facetiousness and euphoria, explosive temper, disinhibition and poor impulse control, and impaired insight; Problems with memory and language are also common, however, apraxias and agnosias are less common than in Alzheimer’s; neurons swell and have “ Pick bodies” (i.e., irregularly shaped inclusions); treatment has not been much studied
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AIDS dementia complex
dementia caused by HIV; approximately 10-15% of people with AIDS; cognitive (memory but not long term memory, attention/concentration, language), motor (weakness, lack of coordination, unsteady gait, and jerky eye movements), and behavioral changes (apathy, withdrawal, lack of motivation, personality changes, inappropriate affect, mood swings, and even hallucinations)
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closed head injuries
head injuries in which the skull is not pierced or cracked; most common are concussions and contusions; often result in loss of consciousness; impairments discrete and/or general
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concussion
blow to the head, hard enough to cause temporary neural dysfunction, but not hard enough to cause a cerebral contusion (bruising); most common head injury; may cause short-term loss of consciousness, anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia (typically events just before injury or event itself)
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postconcussion syndrome
somatic and psychological symptoms including headache, dizziness, fatigue, diminished concentration, memory deficit, irritability, anxiety, insomnia, hypochondriacal concern, hypersensitivity to noise, and photophobia; most common irritability, headaches, fatigue, dizziness
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contussions
severe blow to the head where there are coup-countrecoup injuries; may lose consciousness for minutes to an hour, and if conscious may be drowsy, confused, agitated , and even violent; returning to alert state, may experience temporary aphasia, slight hemiparesis, or unilateral numbness
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coup-contrecoup injuries
bruising beneath the point of impact as well as on the opposite side of the brain
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discrete impairment (head injury)
results from injury at the site of the coup or countrecoup, most frequently the frontal and temporal lobes; often frontal lobe syndromes with significant impacts on personality and social adjustment
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diffuse impairment
(head injury)
loss of complex cognitive functions (e.g., reductions in mental speed, ability to concentrate, and overall cognitive efficiency)
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open head injuries
involve penetration of skull; many do not lose consciousness; neurological signs often highly specific
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recovery from head trauma
bulk happens in first 6-9 months, can continue for 2-3 years; recovery of memory typically slower than general intelligence
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pseudodementia
cognitive impairment due to depression (slower processing speed, difficulties in concentration and attention, psychomotor retardation, social withdrawal, and easily giving up on difficult items when tested); acute onset, association with personal loss or emotional distress, and rapid progression; more likely to complain of memory loss; treatment for depression often improves
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delirium
acute confusional state; results from disturbances in consciousness; reduced ability to focus, sustain, or shift attention; change in cognition (memory deficit, disorientation) or development of a perceptual disturbance; acute onset and fluctuating course; most likely to be reversible; often additional neurological signs and disturbed sleep; common causes are infections, metabolic and endocrine disorders, postoperative states, substance intoxication (medications or illicit drugs), and substance withdrawal
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neurotransmitter involved in delirium
acetylcholine thought to be involved
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drug of choice for delirium
ativan, sometimes antipsychotics
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amnestic disorders
disturbance in memory related to effects of general medical condition or persisting effects of substance; most common are head trauma and alcohol abuse; problems with memory only
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Korsakoff's syndrome
thought to be caused by the chronic thiamin (Vitamin B1) deficiency associated with alcoholism; anterograde amnesia, especially learning new paired associates lists; also suffer retrograde amnesia; confabulate; lack of insight, limited spontaneous conversation; normal IQ, alert, attentive, generally motivated
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confabulate
make up plausible stories about past events that did not occur
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effects of ECT
can result in memory loss; bilateral frequently induces memory changes; cumulative effects; most effects reversible; more complaints of retrograde amnesia; unilateral ECT on the left side preferentially disturbs verbal memory, while unilateral right sided ECT preferentially disturbs nonverbal memory
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Melzak & Walls
Gate control theory of pain (1965)
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gate-control theory
sensations of pain not directly related to activation of pain receptors but mediated by neural gates in the spinal cord that allow signals to continue to brain; pressure stimulation tends to close gate; psychological factors such as attitudes and moods can also impact
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best management of chronic pain drugs
time-contingent (fixed interval) schedule (rather than based on pain)
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beta waves
predominate when person is awake and attentive
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alpha waves
predominate when a person closes eyes or relaxes; 8 to 12 Hz
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theta waves
predominate during first stage when falling asleep; 4 to 8 Hz
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delta waves
slow waves of 1 to 2 Hz; predominate during third and fourth stage
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Spindles
rhythmical responses of 12 to 16 Hz
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Stage 1 (sleep)
non-REM; little alpha, predominance of theta waves; brief transitional stage between awake and asleep
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Stage 2 (sleep)
non-REM; characterized by spindles; greatest amount of time while asleep
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Stage 3 & 4 (sleep)
non-REM; characterized by delta waves; hard to awaken; more prominent in first half of night
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REM sleep
patterns of stage 1 with rapid eye movements (little alpha, predominance of theta); newborns spend a lot of time here; more prominent in second half of night
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Generalized seizures
occur when electrical abnormalities exist throughout the brain; include tonic clonic seizures and petit mal seizures
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Tonic clonic seizures
tonic stage (continous tensions or contraction) followed by clonic stage (rapid, involuntary, alternating muscular contractions, and relaxation); occur during grand-mal seizures
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Grand mal seizures
dramatic and involve convulsions throughout the body; generalized seizure; loss of consciousness common; after, typically experience headache, confusion, fatigue, and amnesia for the seizure
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Petit mal seizures
also called absence seizures; most common in children before age 5; last 1-30 seconds; brief change in level of consciousness, followed by blinking or rolling of the eyes, a blank stare, and slight mouth movements, such as twitching
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Simple partial seizure
electrical abnormalities in focal area of brain only; usually remains conscious and can describe it in detail
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Jacksonian seizures
partial seizure; initially localized motor seizure, with a spread of abnormal activity to adjacent brain areas
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Complex partial seizure
typically preceded by an aura, and usually include purposeless behavior (e.g., aimless wandering), lip smacking, and unintelligible speech; consciousness impaired; confusion may last for several more minutes; ultimately makes full recovery
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Tests of brain function
PET scan; MRI; CAT scan
147
PET scan
positron emission tomography; demonstrating brain activity or functioning; shows functional capacity of particular brain region
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MRI
magnetic resonance imaging; visualization of brain structures; utilizes radio waves rather than x-rays
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CAT scan
computerized axial tomography; viewing brain structure; results in x-ray like pictures that are more clear and accurate
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Synesthesia
one type of sensory stimulation elicits another sense; two or more senses connected (e.g., smelling colors)
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Hans Seyle
developed General Adaptation Syndrome
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General Adaptation Syndrome
model of response to severe stress with three stages: alarm, resistance, exhaustion
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Alarm (General Adaptation Syndrome)
mobilizes resources; sympathetic nervous system activated; high alert, but lowered resistance to illness; symptoms include headache, fatigue, diarrhea
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Resistance (General Adaptation Syndrome)
alarm subsides, body adapts to stressor, level of resistance to illness above normal
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Exhaustion (General Adaptation Syndrome)
response to chronic, unremitting stress; resources exhausted, stress hormones depleted; loss of health and possibly death
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Rosenstock
health belief model
