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PSYC111 > Biological Bases and Memory > Flashcards

Biological Bases and Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is memory?

A

The recording of the past for later use in the present

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2
Q

What are the three main processes of memory?

A

Encoding, Storage and Retrieval

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3
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

Memory of a personal life experiences including what, where and when

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4
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

Memory for ideas, concepts and factual knowledge

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5
Q

What is autobiographical memory and is it episodic or semantic?

A

Memory from a personally life history - A combination

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6
Q

What did Hermann Ebbinghaus discover?

A

The forgetting curve, showing rapid loss of information without rehearsal.

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7
Q

Q: What did Peterson and Peterson (1959) find about short-term memory?

A

A: It fades quickly—information is lost within about 18 seconds without rehearsal.

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8
Q

Q: What is Miller’s “magic number”?

A

A: 7 ± 2 — the number of items an average person can hold in short-term memory.

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9
Q

Q: What is emotional memory?

A

A: Memory influenced by emotion; often strengthens episodic memories.

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10
Q

Q: Why is it important to consider levels of explanation in memory?

A

A: Because memory involves biological, psychological, and cultural factors.

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11
Q

What is the Stage Theory of Memory?

A

A model describing memory as having distinct stages: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).

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12
Q

What is sensory memory?

A

A brief storage of sensory information lasting 0.3 to 3 seconds; studied by George Sperling.

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13
Q

What is short-term memory?

A

A memory system with limited capacity (~7 ± 2 items) and duration (15–20 seconds); can be extended with rehearsal and chunking.

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14
Q

What is long-term memory?

A

A memory system with massive capacity and duration that can last decades.

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15
Q

What does the serial position effect show?

A

People recall items at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a list better than those in the middle.

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16
Q

What do primacy and recency effects suggest?

A

Primacy is linked to long-term memory, and recency to short-term memory.

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17
Q

Who was Patient H.M.?

A

A man with medial temporal lobe damage who had intact STM but impaired LTM, showing the separation of memory systems.

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18
Q

Who was Patient K.F.?

A

A man with impaired STM but intact LTM after a brain injury, further supporting separate memory systems.

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19
Q

What is phonetic vs semantic encoding bias?

A

STM favors phonetic encoding (sound), while LTM favors semantic encoding (meaning).

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20
Q

What is the Atkinson and Shiffrin multi-store model of memory?

A

A model proposing three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, with rehearsal key for transfer.

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21
Q

What is Baddeley and Hitch’s Working Memory model?

A

A model of STM as a system with multiple components: central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.

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22
Q

What is the phonological loop?

A

A component of working memory that handles auditory/verbal information (inner ear and inner voice).

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23
Q

What is the visuospatial sketchpad?

A

A component of working memory responsible for visual and spatial information (the “inner eye”).

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24
Q

What is chunking?

A

Grouping items into meaningful units to overcome STM’s limited capacity.

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25
What is maintenance rehearsal?
Repetition of information to keep it in STM; Craik and Watkins (1973) found it is not always effective for transferring to LTM.
26
What is elaborative rehearsal?
A memory technique involving meaningful analysis of information by linking it to existing knowledge, enhancing encoding into long-term memory.
27
What is the depth of processing theory?
Memory retention improves with deeper processing: semantic (deep) > phonetic (intermediate) > structural (shallow).
28
What did Craik and Tulving (1975) show about memory?
Words processed semantically were remembered better than those processed based on sound or appearance.
29
What did Bransford and Johnson (1972) find about elaboration?
Prior knowledge (e.g. context or schema) significantly improved comprehension and memory.
30
What is a schema?
A mental framework of prior knowledge used to organize and interpret information, aiding memory encoding.
31
What is a semantic network?
A representation of knowledge in long-term memory where related concepts are linked together.
32
What is anterograde amnesia?
The inability to form new memories after a brain injury.
33
What is retrograde amnesia?
The inability to retrieve memories from before a brain injury.
34
What is memory consolidation?
The process by which memories become stable over time, transitioning from a fragile to a durable state.
35
How does time affect memory consolidation?
Consolidation can take years, making older memories more resistant to damage than newer ones.
36
What is encoding in memory?
The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.
37
What is retrieval in memory?
The process of accessing stored information from memory.
38
How can visual imagery help memory?
Creating vivid mental images strengthens memory encoding and recall.
39
What is the method of loci?
A mnemonic device where items to remember are visualized at specific locations along a familiar path.
40
What is encoding-retrieval context?
Memory is improved when the context at encoding matches the context at retrieval (e.g., Godden & Baddeley, 1975).
41
What is the difference between episodic and semantic memory?
Episodic memory is for personal experiences tied to specific times/places; semantic memory is for general world knowledge and facts.
42
What is procedural memory?
A type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and actions, like riding a bike or typing.
43
What types of memory are typically preserved in temporal lobe amnesia?
Skill learning, priming, habits, and conditioning (all forms of implicit memory) remain intact.
44
What is retroactive interference?
When new information interferes with the recall of older memories.
45
What is proactive interference?
When old information interferes with learning or recalling new information.
46
What is the 'feeling of knowing' phenomenon?
The sense that you know something but can’t retrieve it at the moment (e.g., tip of the tongue).
47
How does PTSD affect memory?
It causes intrusive memories, hyperarousal, and avoidance behavior; traumatic memories are often vividly persistent.
48
What is memory reconsolidation?
When a retrieved memory becomes unstable and must be stored again, allowing for distortion or updating.
49
What did Bartlett’s “War of the Ghosts” study show about memory?
Memory is reconstructive and shaped by cultural schemas, leading to distortions over time.
50
What did Loftus and Palmer (1974) show about memory suggestibility?
Leading questions can distort memory recall, such as exaggerating car crash severity or 'remembering' nonexistent broken glass.
51
What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?
The central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
52
What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex?
Frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes.
53
What is the resting membrane potential of a neuron?
Approximately -70 millivolts, with the inside of the neuron negatively charged relative to the outside.
54
What is the difference between a graded potential and an action potential?
A graded potential varies in size and occurs in dendrites, while an action potential is all-or-none and occurs in the axon.
55
What role does the axon hillock (initial segment) play in neural signaling?
It integrates incoming signals and generates an action potential if the threshold is reached.
56
What is spatial and temporal summation?
Spatial summation combines signals from multiple synapses; temporal summation adds repeated inputs from the same synapse over time.
57
How does tetrodotoxin (TTX) affect neurons?
TTX blocks voltage-gated ion channels, preventing action potentials and leading to paralysis or death.
58
What is the function of ion channels in neurons?
They allow specific ions to pass through the membrane, changing the membrane potential and enabling neural signaling.
59
What is the role of pyrethrin in insecticides?
It keeps sodium channels open, causing persistent depolarization and neuron dysfunction in insects.
60
How does the brain interpret and predict the world around us?
It uses past experiences and current sensory input to make predictions and guide behavior.
61
What is the synapse?
A junction between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals.
62
What are the key steps in neurotransmission?
Synthesis, storage in vesicles, release into synaptic cleft, binding to receptors, and reuptake.
63
What is the difference between an agonist and an antagonist?
Agonists activate receptors (mimic natural neurotransmitters); antagonists block receptors or inhibit their activation.
64
Which neurotransmitter is deficient in Parkinson's disease?
Dopamine, due to degeneration of neurons in the substantia nigra.
65
How is Parkinson’s disease treated?
With dopamine agonists like L-Dopa and deep brain stimulation.
66
What are the three types of schizophrenia symptoms?
Positive (hallucinations, delusions), negative (apathy, blunted affect), and cognitive (attention and memory problems).
67
What effect do dopamine agonists have in healthy individuals?
They can induce schizophrenic-like episodes.
68
What is an example of a drug that acts as a serotonin reuptake inhibitor?
Prozac (an SSRI).
69
What is the mechanism of action of methamphetamine?
It acts as an indirect agonist of dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin.
70
How does cocaine affect neurotransmission?
It is a dopamine agonist that increases dopamine levels by blocking reuptake.
71
What is dopamine’s role beyond Parkinson’s and schizophrenia?
It is connected to many drugs of abuse and the brain’s reward system.
72
What is intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS)?
A process where animals self-administer electrical stimulation to brain areas producing pleasurable effects.
73
Which brain areas are involved in the reward system activated by ICSS?
The nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area (VTA).
74
What percentage of neurons in the VTA are dopaminergic?
Approximately 50%.
75
What is the simplest neural circuit that produces behavior?
The reflex.
76
Name characteristics of a reflex.
Automatic, stereotyped, subconscious, unlearned.
77
What is the difference between monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflexes?
Monosynaptic involves one synapse (e.g., stretch reflex), polysynaptic involves multiple synapses with excitation or inhibition.
78
What is the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR)?
A modifiable reflex that stabilizes vision by coordinating eye and head movement.
79
How might memory be stored in the brain according to this content?
As patterns of activity in neural networks, instantiated by changes in synaptic connections.
80
What synaptic changes are associated with memory formation?
Increased neurotransmitter release, increased postsynaptic response, or more synaptic connections.
81
What experimental evidence supports synaptic changes with experience?
Studies showing enriched environments increase the number of synapses per neuron, measured by dendritic spines or electron microscopy.
82
What is a circadian rhythm?
Physical, mental, and behavioral changes that follow a roughly 24-hour cycle.
83
What is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)?
A part of the hypothalamus that acts as the brain’s master circadian clock.
84
What hormone does the pineal gland release at night to regulate sleep?
Melatonin.
85
What is a zeitgeber?
An external cue, like light, that resets the circadian rhythm.
86
What happens to the sleep-wake cycle if all time cues are removed?
It becomes free-running and detaches from the 24-hour day.
87
What is the evolutionary inactivity theory of sleep?
Sleep conserves energy and keeps animals quiet during vulnerable periods.
88
What are the main predictions of the recuperation (repair) theory of sleep?
Sleep deprivation causes physiological/psychological disturbances that worsen with time and lead to recovery sleep.
89
What were the effects observed in sleep deprivation experiments by Peter Tripp and Randy Gardener?
Tripp showed psychosis; Gardener had mood, memory, and hallucination problems.
90
How is sleep disruption linked to health?
It increases risks for cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, obesity, mood disorders, and Alzheimer’s disease.
91
What role does slow-wave sleep play in brain health?
It aids cerebrospinal fluid circulation to clear metabolic waste via the glymphatic system.
92
What does an Electroencephalogram (EEG) measure?
Gross brain electrical activity.
93
What is REM sleep also called and what is its main characteristic?
Paradoxical sleep; high brain activity with rapid eye movements and muscle atonia.
94
What type of memory is enhanced by early (SWS-rich) sleep?
Declarative (explicit) memory.
95
What type of memory is enhanced by late (REM-rich) sleep?
Procedural (implicit) memory.
96
What are sharp-wave ripple (SWR) events?
High-speed hippocampal replay of previous experience sequences during slow wave sleep.
97
What role do sleep spindles play in memory?
They coincide with SWRs and may reflect neocortical engagement in memory consolidation.
98
What is hypnagogia?
The dream-like mental state during the wake-sleep transition (NREM stage 1).
99
How does sleep influence insight and creativity?
Sleep, especially transitions into sleep, can promote creative insights by restructuring memories.
100
What physiological changes happen during REM sleep as measured by EEG, EOG, and EMG?
EEG resembles awake state, EOG shows rapid eye movements, EMG shows loss of muscle tone.
101
What is the mechanism of memory consolidation during sleep?
Hippocampus replays experience via SWRs during slow wave sleep; cortical spindles engage to consolidate memory in neocortex.

PSYC111 (4 decks)

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