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TEAS STUDYING > Biology > Flashcards

Biology Flashcards

1
Q

scientific thinking steps in order

A
  • observe
  • hypothesize
  • predict
  • experiment
  • conclusion
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2
Q

what is an element

A
  • substance that cannot be broken down chemically into other substances
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3
Q

what is an atom

A
  • a bit of matter that cannot be subdivided any further without losing its essential properties
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4
Q

basic atomic structure

A
  • nucleus is composed of protons & neutrons
  • the nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of electrons
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5
Q

what are isotopes?

A
  • atoms that have the same # of protons, but more or fewer neutrons
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6
Q

what determines an atoms properties?

A

of protons

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7
Q

how many elements are in the human body & what are the BIG FOUR?

A
  • 25 elements
  • oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
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8
Q

what determine’s how an atom will bond?

A
  • electrons
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9
Q

the number of protons in an atom is equal to:

A
  • the number of electrons
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10
Q

why is carbon so important for life?

A
  • carbon is able to share its 4 valence electrons with up to 4 other atoms
  • a huge variety of complex molecules are possible
  • carbon mostly bonds w/ oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen & other carbons
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11
Q

what are ions?

A
  • charged atoms
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12
Q

ionic bonds:

A
  • TRADE of electrons
  • two oppositely charged ions attract each other
  • results in neutral compound
  • ex: NaCl
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13
Q

covalent bonds:

A
  • two atoms SHARE electrons
  • electron cloud surrounds both atoms
  • single or double covalent bonds
  • STRONGEST bond
  • ex: skin
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14
Q

hydrogen bonds:

A
  • bonds between a slightly positive hydrogen atom in one molecule and a slightly negative atom in the other molecule
  • weakest chemical bond
  • ex: water-water
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15
Q

why is water crucial to life:

A
  • hydrogen bonds = water cohesive for carrying nutrients
  • high heat capacity (heat absorption form sun)
  • lower density when frozen (ice floats)
  • universal solvent
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16
Q

what is acidity?

A
  • the amount of hydrogen in a solution
  • pH (potential of Hydrogen)
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17
Q

acids:

A
  • pH lower than 7.0
  • higher concentration of H+
  • H+ is very reactive
  • ex in order from most acidic: stomach acid, soda, orange juice, coffee
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18
Q

bases:

A
  • pH higher than 7.0
  • higher concentration of OH-
  • ex in order from least basic: blood, baking soda, ammonia, bleach
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19
Q

blood pH contains:

A
  • buffers
  • can quickly absorb excess H+ ions to keep a solution from being too acidic
  • and quickly release H+ ions to counteract any increases in OH- concentration
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20
Q

the four major macromolecules:

A
  • carbohydrates
  • lipids
  • proteins
  • nucleic acids
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21
Q

carbohydrates:

A
  • carbon + H2O
  • primary fuel for cells
  • form structure of cells in all organisms
  • composed of monosaccharides = simple sugar
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22
Q

lipids:

A
  • significantly more C-H bonds than carbs
  • more storable energy
  • triglycerides = 3 carbons with fatty acid tails
  • fatty acid tails = carbon with hydrogen attached (acid bc of Oxygen)
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23
Q

saturated fats:

A
  • each carbon in hydrocarbon chain is bound to two H atoms = tends to be solid @ room temp.
  • bonds form a linear structure
  • ex: cheese
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24
Q

unsaturated fats:

A
  • at least 1 double bond link 2 carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain
  • liquid at room temp
  • bonds form a crooked shape
  • ex: olive oil
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25
Q

what is hydrogenation?

A
  • chemical process / artificial addition of hydrogen atoms to an unsaturated fat to make the fat more saturated
  • straightens the hydrocarbon tail shape by converting some of the double bonds to single
  • our bodies don’t digest these well
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26
Q

cholesterol:

A
  • semi rigid ring structure, a sterol
  • all sterols have 4 fused carbon rings
  • important component of cell membrane
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27
Q

steroid hormones:

A
  • based on cholesterol
  • estrogen & testosterone
  • estrogen = regulation of memory & mood
  • testosterone = muscle growth
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28
Q

phospholipids:

A
  • major component of cell membrane
  • negative charge
  • hydrophilic
  • two fatty acid chains & phosphorus atom in the glycerol “head” region
  • double layer in every cell of our body = phospholipid bilayer
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29
Q

proteins:

A
  • composed of C,H,O & nitrogen
  • structural, protection, regulation, enzymatic, transport, DNA making
  • made up of amino acids
  • 9 essential amino acids
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30
Q

enzymes:

A
  • proteins that increase likelihood for a reaction to occur
  • speed up chemical reactions in the body
  • lower activation energy needed for processes
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31
Q

mutations

A
  • incorrect amino acid sequences
  • nonfunctional enzymes
  • essential to evolution
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32
Q

nucleic acids:

A
  • of the nucleus
  • make of nucleotides = molecule of sugar, phosphate group, & nitrogenous base
  • carry genetic info (ATGC)
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33
Q

DNA:

A
  • deoxyribonucleic acid
  • ATGC
  • hydrogen bonds hold AT / GC together
  • double stranded
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34
Q

RNA:

A
  • ribonucleic acid
  • single stranded
  • AU / GC
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35
Q

cell

A

smallest unit of life that can function independently & perform the necessary functions of life & reproduce

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36
Q

cell theory

A
  • all living organisms are made up of cells
  • cells come from preexisting cells
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37
Q

eukaryotic cells

A
  • contains a nucleus (DNA)
  • contain specialized subregions (organelles)
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38
Q

prokaryotic cells

A
  • don’t have a nucleus
  • DNA resides in middle of the cell
  • 2/3 of all living organisms
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39
Q

prokaryotic cell structure:

A
  • plasma membrane = encloses contents
  • cytoplasm = fluid inside the cell
  • DNA = genetic info
  • ribosomes = genetic info into protein structure
  • cell wall = protect & shape cell
  • capsule = protective outer coating
  • pili = hair-like projections for attachment
  • flagellum = whip-like projection(s) for cellular movement
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40
Q

rough endoplasmic reticulum

A
  • picks up RNA and turns them into proteins
  • transports proteins to the smooth ER
  • rough = covered in ribosomes
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41
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A
  • synthesizes sterols & lipids
  • sends these to the Golgi
  • liver cells contain much smooth ER for detoxifying
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42
Q

golgi apparatus

A
  • tells proteins where to go
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43
Q

mitochondria

A
  • ATP maker
  • different cells have different # of mitochondria depending on energy needs
  • ex: liver cells have >2,500 mito, RBC have 0 mito. (mitos. eat oxygen)
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44
Q

lysosome

A
  • breaks down everything
  • breaks down proteins & RNA & viruses
  • digestive enzymes
  • acidic
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45
Q

organelles that specifically plant cells have

A
  • chloroplasts = convert energy obtained from sun
  • vacuole (found in some animal cells) = water storage & waste disposal
  • cell wall = helps the plant have a rigid stalk
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46
Q

endosymbiosis theory

A
  • explains the presence of chloroplasts & mitochondria
  • mito & chloro = also contain DNA
  • both divide by splitting (fission)
  • DNA in mito & chloro are more related to bacterial DNA
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47
Q

purpose of the plasma membrane

A
  • synthesize & store energy
  • hold contents of cell in place
  • take in nutrients
  • allows interaction w/ environment & other cells
  • phospholipid bilayer
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48
Q

recognition proteins

A
  • markers that ID cells
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49
Q

membrane proteins

A
  • structure
  • accelerate reactions on the plasma membrane
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50
Q

transport proteins

A
  • provide passageway for molecules through cell
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51
Q

receptor proteins

A
  • bind to external chemicals that regulate processes within the cell
  • send / receive signals
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52
Q

simple diffusion

A
  • molecules pass directly through plasma membrane without assistance of another molecule
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53
Q

facilitated diffusion

A
  • molecules move across plasma membrane with help of a channel or carrier molecule
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54
Q

osmosis

A
  • passive diffusion of water across a membrane
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55
Q

tonicity

A
  • balance of a solute in a solution
56
Q

isotonic solution

A
  • equal balance of solute in solvent
57
Q

hypotonic solution

A
  • concentration on the outside of the cell is lower than inside
  • water diffuses INTO cells
  • unlike plant cells, animal cells may explode in hypotonic solutions (lyse)
58
Q

hypertonic solution

A
  • concentration of solutes outside cell is higher than inside
  • cell shrivels up (crenate)
59
Q

active transport

A
  • movement of molecules into & out of a cell that requires the INPUT OF ENERGY
  • primary active transport = uses ATP directly
  • secondary active transport = not direct use of ATP
60
Q

exocytosis

A
  • shuttles molecules out of the cell
  • vesicles 1st enclose the particle & then merge with the plasma membrane to release their contents
  • dumps large quantities of material outside of cells
  • sometimes used by lysosomes
61
Q

nucleus

A
  • large & most prominent organelle
  • genetic control center
  • stored DNA info
  • composed of nuclear membranes (2 bilayers) w/ pores for protection
  • composed of chromatin (aka chromosomes) = fibers of DNA coated with proteins
62
Q

tight functions

A
  • protein interactions that act like a super glue to tightly attach membranes
  • water proof
63
Q

desmosomes

A
  • proteins that are like velcro
  • contain hooks that attach tightly, but allows for signals to transport through
  • can be broken apart to release tension
64
Q

gap junctions

A
  • pores that allow passage of materials between cells
65
Q

key energy conversion processes:

A
  • photosynthesis
  • cellular respiration
66
Q

kinetic energy

A
  • motion
67
Q

potential energy

A
  • energy stored in an object
68
Q

thermodynamic

A
  • heat structure
  • 1st law: energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted
  • 2nd law: energy conversion is not perfectly efficient, energy is always lost (in form of heat)
69
Q

ATP

A
  • adenosine triphosphate
  • adenine + ribose sugar + 3 phosphate
  • 3 negative charges will repel, so they need a lot of energy to be pushed together
  • ATP is used for ALL chemical reactions in the body
  • mitochondria produces ATP
  • phosphorus is a strong element, hungry for oxygen
70
Q

photosynthesis:

A
  • uses energy from sunlight to make food (glucose)
  • organic molecules are produced
  • O2 is a biproduct
  • sunlight + water + CO2 –> oxygen & sugar
71
Q

where does photosynthesis take place

A
  • chloroplasts
72
Q

thylakoid

A
  • membrane structure where light energy is converted to chemical energy
  • that energy is released into the surrounding liquid (stroma), then is turned into sugar
73
Q

light energy

A
  • type of kinetic energy made of photons
  • photons are organized into waves
  • wavelength corresponds to the amount of energy being carried out by the photon
74
Q

pigments

A
  • molecules that absorb light
75
Q

chlorophyll

A
  • main pigment molecule in plants that absorbs light energy from the sun
76
Q

opsin

A

proteins that allow us to see color differently

77
Q

NAD

A

high energy electron carrier

78
Q

ATP + NAD synthesis

A

ATP + NAD + carbon dioxide go through the calvin cycle –> sugar

79
Q

calvin cycle

A
  1. the enzyme rubisco picks carbon atoms from CO2 molecules in the air & attaches them to an organic molecule
  2. the organic molecule is modified into a small sugar called G3P (using energy from ATP & NADPH)
  3. some molecules of G3P are used to regenerate the original organic molecule, using ATP
80
Q

most prevalent protein on the planet

A

rubisco

81
Q

cellular respiration equation

A

oxygen + sugar + water –> ATP

82
Q

genome

A

an organisms complete set of DNA (mito. or chloro AND nucleus DNA)

83
Q

chromosomes

A
  • one+ unique pieces of DNA
84
Q

gene

A
  • specific sequence of DNA that carries info necessary for producing a functional product
  • contains instructions for cells
85
Q

locus

A
  • position of a gene on a chrosome
86
Q

alleles

A

different versions of a gene that code for the same feature *expression

87
Q

trait

A
  • any single characteristic/feature of an organism *seeing the expression of the allele
88
Q

introns

A

noncoding regions within genes (25%)
intervening region

89
Q

genotype

A
  • genes that an organism carries for a particular trait
  • what is *encoded in that stretch of DNA
90
Q

phenotype

A
  • physical manifestation of gene for a particular trait
  • what actually ends up being *expressed
91
Q

transcription:

A
  • GOAL: produce mRNA from copying a DNA sequence
    1. promoter brings DNA sequence and RNA polymerase to begin
    2. Transcribe (AU/GC) & termination signal
    3. special nucleotide is placed as cap on end of RNA
    4. tail is place on other end of RNA = 200 adenines “poly A tail” for protection
92
Q

translation:

A
  • GOAL: take mRNA made in transcription and make it into a protein
    1. tRNA anticodon reads 3 nucleotides at a time
    2. codon decides which amino acids go in
    3. ribosomes attach to right triplet
    4. new amino acid added to polypeptide chain
    5. exit site = ribosomes fall off last triplet
    == completed protein
93
Q

gene regulation

A
  • whether a gene is turned off or on
  • does the gene produce a protein
94
Q

point mutations

A
  • nucleotide substitution / insertion / deletion
95
Q

chromosomal mutation

A
  • chromosome deletion / relocation / duplication
96
Q

spontaneous DNA

A

occurs on accident during replication

97
Q

genetic engineering

A
  • manipulation of organisms’ genetic material by adding, deleting, or transplanting genes from one organism to another
  • used in agriculture, health, & forensic science
98
Q

DNA chopping

A
  • foreign DNA is isolated and chopped by enzymes
  • specific sequences (palindromes) removed
  • this creates sticky dens = single DNA strand that will find a matching sequence
99
Q

DNA amplifying

A
  • polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
  • DNA strands are heated = strands seperate
  • strands are cooled down & synthesized
  • primer is attached
  • results in 2 identical copies of original segment of DNA
100
Q

DNA insertion

A
  • bacterial plasmid carried info/enzymes
  • cut a plasmid w/ restriction enzyme
  • gene of interest is inserted into plasmid
  • segments now share bases & fit together
  • this is cloning
101
Q

DNA growth

A
  • large amounts of DNA create gene library
  • each piece is inserted into plasmid
  • plasmid is introduced to different bacterial cell
  • bacteria are allowed to divide repeatedly, each producing a clone of foreign DNA fragment
102
Q

human growth hormone

A
  • produced by pituitary gland
103
Q

erythropoietin

A
  • produced by kidneys
  • RBC production
104
Q

telomeres

A
  • sections of noncoding, repetitive DNA
  • act as protective cap on the tip of each chromosome
105
Q

binary fission

A
  • replication = creates a duplicate of each chromosome
  • parent cell divides to create 2 daughter cells
  • asexual reproduction
106
Q

eukaryotic cell cycle:

A
  1. gap 1 = cell’s primary growth phase
  2. some cells enter G0 (resting phase outside of cell)
  3. gap 2 = second period of growth & prep for cell division
  4. mitosis = parent cell’s nucleus, w/ duplicated chromosomes, divides
  5. cytokinesis = cytoplasm is divided into 2 daughter cells, each has complete set of parent cell’s DNA
107
Q

cell cycle control system:

A

3 primary checkpoints that regulate cell cycle in eukaryotes
1. G1IS = is DNA damaged/does it have sufficient nutrients?
2. G2IM = begins during synthesis, has DNA replicated properly?
3. spindle assembly = begins during mitosis, are spindle fibers properly build & attached
=== checks that chromosomes are set to go to the right place

108
Q

DNA replication main enzymes & their functions:

A
  • DNA helicase unwinds the double helix
  • DNA polymerase synthesizes replacement of DNA & adds onto growing polymer
    *always adding on 3 prime end
109
Q

apoptosis

A

cell suicide

110
Q

mitosis (IPMAT)

A
  1. interphase = chromosomes replicate in prep. for mitosis
  2. prophase = sister chromatids condense / spindle forms
  3. metaphase = sister chromatids line up @ center of cell
  4. telophase = terminal stage
  5. cytokinesis = cytoplasm divides into 2 daughter cells
111
Q

what is cancer:

A
  • unrestrained cell growth
  • occurs when disruption of DNA interferes with cell’s ability to regulate cell division
  • error in cell cycle (no G0 phase)
112
Q

metastasis

A
  • cancer cells spread to other cell in body via circulatory & lymphatic systems
113
Q

meiosis

A
  • sexual reproduction
  • reduces genetic material in gametes & produces gametes that differ
  • takes place in gonads (egg & sperm)
114
Q

diploid

A

cells that have 2 copies of each chromosome

115
Q

haploid

A

meiosis enables organisms to produce haploid gametes (single set of chromosomes)

116
Q

meiosis division rounds:

A

division 1: homologues separate = IPMAT1
division 2: IPMAT 2

117
Q

difference between meiosis & mitosis:

A
  • between interphase & prophase
  • as chromosomes condense down, the homologues find each other & perform recombination (crossing over)
118
Q

chiasmata

A

actual point where the chromosomes cross over

119
Q

sexual reproduction

A

females = XX
males = XY

120
Q

down syndrome

A
  • extra copy of chromosome 21 (3 total copies)
121
Q

trisomy

A

3 copies of a chromosome

122
Q

turner syndrome (female)

A
  • one x chromosome
  • short height
  • web skin between neck & shoulders
  • underdeveloped ovaries
  • learning difficulties
123
Q

Klinefelter syndrome (male)

A
  • XXY chromosomes
  • underdeveloped testes
  • lower testosterone
  • development of some female features
  • long limbs, slightly taller than average
124
Q

XYY male

A
  • taller than average
  • moderate to severe acne
  • intelligence may be slightly lower than average
  • “super males”
125
Q

XXX female

A
  • may be sterile
  • no obvious physical or mental problems
  • “metafemales”
126
Q

heredity

A

passing of characteristics from parent to offspring through parent’s genes

127
Q

single-gene traits

A
  • some traits are determined by instructions an organism carries on one gene
  • *most human characteristics are influenced by multiple genes + environment
128
Q

codominance of genes:

A

heterozygous individual shows features of both alleles
Ex: blood type

129
Q

incomplete dominance of genes:

A
  • phenotype of a heterozygote is intermediate between the phenotypes of two homozygotes
130
Q

antigens

A
  • signposts in the body’s immune system
  • illicit’s immune response
131
Q

antibodies

A

immune system molecules in the bloodstream that attack foreign invaders
(self recognition)

132
Q

polygenic traits

A
  • influenced by many different genes
133
Q

pleiotropy

A
  • one gene influences multiple, unrelated genes
  • ex: siamese cat
134
Q

sex-linked traits

A
  • carried on X chromosome
  • differ in expression in males & females
  • ex: males tend to be colorblind more often than females due to only have 1 X chrom.
135
Q

evolution

A
  • changes in allele frequencies of a population over time
  • populations evolve
136
Q

genetic drift

A
  • frequency of alleles undergo a random change, unrelated to the allele’s influence on reproductive success
  • BIGGEST influence on evolution
137
Q

urey-miller experiment

A
  • flask with water, H2, CH4(methane), and NH3(ammonia)
  • ## 5 amino acids formed

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