Biology Flashcards
(322 cards)
1
Q
mismatch repair system
A
enzymes scan, locate, excise, and replaced mismatched pairs missed by DNA polymerase
2
Q
when do fungi reproduce sexually
A
when life is hard
3
Q
heterotrophic
A
must ingest organic molecules
4
Q
example of convergent evolution
A
bat and bird wings
5
Q
by how many bonds do A and T bond
A
two
6
Q
nervous tissue
A
main component of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, regulates and controls body functions and activity
7
Q
western blot
A
used on protein segments, probes used are radiolabeled antibodies
8
Q
telophase
A
chromatids reach the poles of the cell, elongation continues, nuclear membrane reforms
9
Q
when does transcription occur in the lac operon
A
in the presence of lactose
10
Q
what proteins are made in the cytosol?
A
proteins for all the other organelles
11
Q
large subunit
A
portion of the ribosome that joins amino acids to form polypeptide chains
12
Q
phospholipids
A
polar head group and nonpolar tail that are vital in form in the membrane bi-layer
13
Q
linkage
A
linked genes do not sort independently, inheriting one gene changes the probability of inheriting the other
14
Q
parasitic
A
one participant benefits and the other is harmed
15
Q
spindle apparatus
A
array of microtubules that grow outward from centrioles during mitosis
16
Q
by how many bonds do C and G bond
A
three
17
Q
what is the strongest junction
A
desmosome
18
Q
sliding clamp
A
protein that helps keep DNA polymerase tightly associated with the strand
19
Q
pure-breeding
A
homozygous
20
Q
mismatched base pairs
A
error caused during replication, methylation of guanine causes pairing with T
21
Q
what proteins are made in the RER?
A
for the RER, golgi, lysosomes, endosomes, plasma membrane, and secretion
22
Q
initiation
A
mRNA, tRNA, and the first amino acid all come together in the ribosome
23
Q
sex-linked inheritance
A
patterns of X and Y chromosome inheritance
24
Q
spirilla
A
spiral
25
when is active transport requires
moving things against their gradient or against an action potential
26
S phase of the cell cycle
DNA replication
27
chromatin
DNA and protein
28
restriction endonucleases
enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences, creating sticky ends
29
what is the mitotic spindle made of
microtubules
30
pleiotropy
one single gene contributes to multiple phenotypic traits
31
point mutation
a single base pair substitution
32
where are lipids synthesized?
ER
33
cancer
uncontrolled cell division due to failure of the cell's normal regulatory mechanisms
34
DNA
polymer of deoxyribose nucleotides
35
what is the pH of the mitochondrial matrix
7.8
36
what system do second messengers operate under
endocrine
37
what inhibits the lac operon
glucose
38
phototrophs
capture energy directly from the sun via photosynthesis
39
dihybrid crosses
used when considering two traits
draw to separate punnett squares and multiply the individual probabilities for each trait
40
polymorphisms
random variations in genetic sequence among individuals that create variable forms
41
is phagocytosis specific?
yes
42
endocytosis
process by which a cell takes up small particles by invagination of the plasma membrane to form a vesicle
43
frameshift mutation
changes the reading frame
44
mendels laws
law of segregation
| law of independent assortment
45
law of independent assortment
genes located on different chromosomes assort independently
46
from 1-23 do the chromosomes increase or decrease in size?
decrease
47
histone
proteins around which the DNA helix is wrapped when condensed into chromosomes
48
lysogenic
dormant cycle of the virus when viral DNA is incorporated into host genome but new viruses are not being assembled
49
rough endoplasmic reticulum
covered with ribosomes that are actively translocating proteins to the ER lumen as they are translated
start of post-translational modifications
50
transduction
viruses accidentally incorporate host genetic material into their nucleic acids
51
gene pool
complete set of genes and/or alleles in a population
52
autocrine system
signaling molecule secreted by a cell bind to receptors on the same cell
53
bacili
rod shaped
54
nucleosome
set of 8 histone proteins in a cube shape with DNA coiled around it
55
vaccine
inactive virus or portion of virus such that the immune system can develop antibodies without infection
56
incomplete penetrance
various individuals have the same genotype but some have a diseased phenotype and others do not
57
how do lysosomes form
budding off from the golgi
58
helicase
unzips the double helix
59
tumor suppressor genes
protect cells from uncontrolled growth
60
what are fungi cell walls made of
chitin
61
pH of the inter-membrane space
6.4
62
peroxisomes
detoxify chemicals and participate in lipid metabolism
63
reverse transciptase
virus enzyme that can translate RNA into DNA to be incorporated into the host genome
64
survival of the fittest
natural selection
individual best suited to its environment will be most likely to survive and pass along its genetic information
65
prokaryotic flagella
spinning motion, simple helicies of flagellin
66
metaphase
chromosomes move to the central plate by spindle
67
could rRNA be considered an enzyme and why
yes because they act in the polymerization of proteins
68
smooth muscle
walls of blood vessels and lymphatic tracts, non-striated, involuntary
69
carcinogens
large polycyclic compounds that bind to the DNA and create bulky side groups
70
nucleoside
base and sugar
71
post-translational modifications
usually includes the addition of polysaccharides, lipids, phosphates, and occurs at the ER and golgi
72
genetic imprinting
one gene is expressed differently depending which parent it originated from
73
how do bacteria reproduce
binary fission
74
what does A bond with
T
75
G0 phase of the cell cycle
halt of division
76
primates
opposable thumbs, nails
77
proto-onco genes
normal genes that could become oncogenes if mutated
78
isotonic
same solute concentration inside and outside
79
are lipids metabolized in the smooth ER?
no
80
transcription
the first step in gene expression by which DNA is copied to mRNA
81
surface proteins
peripheral proteins that do not enter the hydrophobic core
82
what is the bond between amino acids called
peptide bond
83
do mitochondria use the same genetic code as the nucleus
no
84
origin of replication
location on the chromosome where replication begins
85
what make up the cilia and the flagella
microtubules
86
5' end
phosphate
87
cilia
lining on cavities, protrusions on epithelial cells
movement of extracellular material and fluid
88
what are found in the mitochondrial matrix?
DNA
Granules
ATP Synthase
89
G1 phase of the cell cycle
growth
90
anaphase
microtubules shorten drawing chromatids to opposite ends of the cell, unattached microtubules elongate stretching the cell
91
example of divergent evolution
adaptive radiation
92
hardy-weinberg equations
p^2+2pq+q^2=1
p+q=1
93
Hardy-Weinberg assumption (5)
large population
no mutation
no immigration or emigration
random mating
no natural selection
94
T
thymine
95
sister chromatids
duplicated chromosome joined at center by a centromere
96
introns
non-coding DNA spliced out of the mRNA
97
C
cytosine
98
what cells are in G0?
fully differentiated neurons and cardiac muscle cells
99
germ cells
only cells passed on to offspring
100
phage
virus that infects bacteria
101
poly-adenosine (poly-A) tail
added to the 3' end
102
meiosis
specialized cell division that produces 4 genetically distinct, haploid reproductive cells
103
golgi apparatus
cellular "post office" for proteins to organize, continue modifications, excrete proteins in vesicles for transport
104
example of a lytic virus
AIDS
105
p1 generation
first parental generation, both parents are homozygous for their trait
one TT and one tt
106
test cross
cross between a homozygous recessive and a dominant phenotype
107
transport proteins
transmembrane proteins that create tunnels for the passage of ions, proteins, or other substances through the hydrophobic core
108
mosaicism
different cells in the same individual contain non-identical genotypes
109
what is the bacterial cell wall made of
peptidoglycan
110
flagella
longer, use a whip-like motion
111
haploid
n
112
how many cycles of replication does a telomere last
50
113
anatomy
shared parts/organization
114
transfer RNA (tRNA)
contains an anticodon on one end and is covalently bonded to the associated anticodon
115
single-stranded binding proteins
coat the individual strands and prevent re-annealing
116
mitosis
process by which a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells, both diploid
117
nervous system
communication between cells via electrical potentials on neurons
118
tight junction
waterproof barrier
119
lac operon
regulates the expression of lactase in bacteria
120
degenerative
amino acid sequence will not give the DNA sequence because each amino acid has multiple codons
121
wild type
normal or typical phenotype
122
cholesterol
amphipathic molecule with a steroid and polar region, inserted between phospholipids at high concentrations in eukaryotic cells
123
muscle cell types
cardiac, smooth, skeletal
124
messenger RNA (mRNA)
complementary RNA copied from DNA template stand
125
nondisjunction
chromosomes fail to separate properly during anaphase
126
semi-conservative
each new formed stand of DNA is made up of one old strand paired with one new strand
127
metastasis
spreading of a cancer from one tissue or organ to another
128
small subunit
portion of the ribosome that reads mRNA
129
mychorrhizae
symbiosis between fungi and plant roots
130
nucleus
where the DNA is stored, surrounded by a dual bi-layer membrane
131
fossils
records may reveal past shared traits
132
probability of EITHER/OR
add
133
integral proteins
proteins with multiple segments embedded within the phospholipid bilayer
134
example of co-dominance
blood type
135
what hormones bind to intracellular receptors
lipid soluble
136
recognition sequence
specific base sequence recognized by an endonculease
137
exon
coding sequence in mature mRNA, stay in the nucleus
138
hypertonic
high solute concentration outside, water flows out
139
telomeres
long sections of repetitive DNA found at the ends of each chromosome
140
lichen
symbiosis between fungi and algae
141
commensalism
one participant benefits and the other is neutral
142
what is the waterproof junction
tight junction
143
diploid
2n
144
G
guanine
145
immature mRNA
contains introns, not processed
146
divergent evolution
process by which species develop different forms and even new species from a common ancestor
147
A
adenine
148
tubulin
globular protein that polymerizes to microtubules
149
facilitated diffusion
doesnt require ATP
150
translation
the process by which ribosomes create proteins
151
epithelial tissue
lines the cavities and surfaces of blood vessels and organs
152
phylogeny
shared evolutionary history
153
do males or females more easily contract x-linked traits
Males
154
5' cap
altered nucleotide at 5' end of transcript
155
external chemicals/radiation
pyrimidines dimerize when exposed to radiation, chemicals may cause alkylation of base functional groups
156
myosin
motor protein
157
3' end
-OH
158
vector
segment of DNA used to transfer a desired sequence into the cell
159
gram negative
stain pink
thin cell wall
no endospores
two membranes (on either end of the cell wall)
160
conjugation
F+ to F-
| sex pilus
161
juxtacrine
signaling requires direct contact between two cells
162
niche
the specific status or role an organism plays in its ecosystem
163
where does translation occur
cytoplasm and rough ER
164
hyphae
long, intertwining branches
165
p^2
homozygous dominant
166
centromere
region of the chromosome that joins the two sister chromatids
167
osmosis
diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane
168
f1 generation
offspring from the p1 generation
| all Tt
169
example of cilia
respiratory/nervous/reproductive systems
170
mutualistic
both participants benefit equally
171
species distinction
organisms classified as different species should not be able to mate with one another and produce viable, fertile offspring
172
incomplete dominance
dominant and recessive phenotypes blended in heterozygotes
173
can DNA leave the nucleus
no
174
mature mRNA
ready for translation, had a 5' cap and a poly-A tail
175
how many recessive alleles does a tumor suppressor gene require to lose function
two
176
what function do proto-onco genes fill
cell division, cell cycle, growth, apoptosis
177
spontaneous hydrolysis
DNA reacts in solution spontaneously
amine groups react with water to a carbonyl
DNA base hydrolyzed to a hydroxyl
178
semi-discontinuous
the leading strand is synthesized continuously and the lagging strand is synthesized in okazaki fragments
179
skeletal muscle
voluntary control of somatic nervous system, striated
180
RNA polymerase
reads the template strand 3' to 5' creating a pre-mRNA transcript that matches the coding strand, with U for T
181
intracrine system
singaling molecules bind to receptors inside the same cell, never secreted
182
post-transcriptional processing
large sections of introns are spliced out
183
what is the purpose of a telomere
provide a buffer region of non-coding DNA so that the loss of DNA doesn't impact a gene
184
alternative splicing
exons can be assembled in various orders following intron removal
185
allele
one of various forms of the same gene
186
what mutations are heritable
mutations in germ cells
187
is pinocytosis specific?
no
188
gene
segment of DNA that codes for a protein
189
mutations
any change in DNA sequence
190
G2 phase of the cell cycle
growth
191
neutral mutation
does not negatively impact the fitness of the individual
192
chemotroph
oxidize organic or inorganic compounds for energy
193
first amino acid
methionine
194
secondary active transport
no direct coupling of ATP required
195
pinocytosis
ingestion of extracellular fluid and small particles
196
what type of tissue is blood
connective
197
apoptosis
programmed cell death featuring autolysis of cell contents by lysosomes
198
cocci
spherical
199
primase
RNA polymerase first constructs short RNA primers on both strands because DNA polymerase can only add to an existing 3' OH group
200
desmosomes
weld cells together, protect against stress
201
what activates the lac operon
cAMP
202
what does C bond with
G
203
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
known DNA sequence
2primers to anneal with DNA on either end of the target sequence
heated to denature helix
primers and taq polymerase added
cooled to allow for annealing
heated for the synthesis of two new strands
204
evolutionary bottleneck
sudden decrease in the number of individuals in a population
205
when is nondisjunction most common
meiosis one
206
tissue organization ordering
organ systems, organs, tissues, cells
207
viruses
acellular species that cannot survive, grow, or reproduce on their own
208
law of segregation
alleles segregate independently of one another when forming gametes
209
endosymbiotic theory
mitochondria evolved from aerobic prokaryotes that were engulfed by an ancient eukaryote
210
connective tissue
connects, supports, binds, or separates other tissues/organs
211
genotype
specific alleles held by an individual
212
example of paracrine molecules
neurotransmitters in the synaptic gap
213
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
polymer of which ribosomes are constructed
214
adaptive radiation
rapid formation of a variety of species from one ancestral species
215
where are lipids metabolized?
mitochondria
216
transformation
bacteria pick up DNA from the environment
217
nucleotide
phosphate, sugar, and base
218
prophase
nuclear membrane and nucleolus break down, DNA condenses to chromosomes, mitosis spindle forms and connects to the kinetochore
219
bidirectional
replication proceeds in both directions simultaneously from the origin
220
hybridization
single stranded pieces of DNA anneal to complementary strands
221
chromosomes
efficiently package DNA to be stored between divisions and moved during division
222
what explains the MCAT deviations from phenotypic ratios
linkage
223
criteria for natural selection (2)
individual must have a polymorphism that provides and evolutionary advantage
advantage must result in the individual producing more offspring
224
where besides the nucleus is DNA found
mitochondria
225
embryology
two organisms may have similarities only present during development
226
benign
tumors growing slowly, have not invaded other tissues, could later be cancerous
227
phenotype
expression of the gene in terms of visible or observable characteristics
228
lytic
viral genes are actively being transcribed and new viruses being assembled
infected cells eventually burst to release large numbers of new viruses
229
how many pairs of chromosomes does a human have?
23
| 22 autosomes and 1 sex
230
classification levels
```
kingdom
phylum
class
order
family
genus
species
```
231
where does the centriole attach and when?
the centrosome of the chromosome at the metaphase plate
232
probability of BOTH/AND
multiply
233
silent mutation
does not alter the amino acid sequence
234
chordata
deuterosomes, notochord, gills
235
malignant
cancerous tumor, exhibiting uncontrolled growth
236
epigenetic
any heritable phenotype resulting from a modification of gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code itself
237
q^2
homozygous recessive
238
bacterial growth
exponential
239
crossing over
exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes that results in recombinant chromosomes during sexual reproduction
240
gram positive
stain purple
thick cell wall
endospores
single membrane
241
actin
protein monomer that polymerizes to microfilaments
242
active transport
requires ATP
243
any two fragments cut by the same endonuclease will be
complimentary
244
polygenic
many genes contribute toward one phenotypic trait
245
can RNA exit the nucleus
yes
246
binary fission
distribution of DNA is random, daughter cell may not get a copy
247
DNA sequencing
sequencing may reveal otherwise hidden connections, add legitimacy to current models
248
convergent evolution
two individuals happen to have the same or similar form but arrived at the form from very different paths
249
elongation
addition of amino acids by the formation of peptide bonds
250
nucleolus
site of rRNA transcription and ribosome assembly
251
locus
specific physical location of a gene on a chromosome
252
hypotonic
low solute concentration inside, water flows in
253
which bases are pyrimidines
C and T (and U)
254
animalia
multicellular, motile, heterotrophic
255
what is the pH of a lysosome
5
256
Base excision
DNA glycosylase excizes the base, other enzymes excise the rest, DNA polymerase and ligase replace the bases
257
lysosomes
digest cell parts, fuse with phagocytotic vesicles and participate in cell death
258
DNA ligase
fills in the last nucleotide of the lagging strand and completes the final phosphodiester bond
259
autotrophic
capable of fixing CO2 and can use it as a carbon source
260
which bases are purines
A and G
261
start codon
AUG
262
adherens junction
strong mechanical attachment
263
2pq
heterozygous
264
when does crossing over occur
prophase one
265
f2 generation
offspring from f1 generation
3: 1 phenotype dominant:recessive
1: 2:1 genotype TT:Tt:tt
266
helicase
unwinds the DNA and creates a transcription bubble
267
cardiac muscle
heart walls, striated, involuntary
268
fluid mosaic model
dual-layer model of the phospholipid bilayer creating a cytosolic and extracellular face, phospholipids are fluid
269
where do neurotransmitters bind to receptors
post-synaptic membrane
270
what carbon on RNA has a hydroxyl group
2'
271
somatic cells
any cell that is not a reproductive cell
272
eastern blot
used to verify post-translational modification, probes bind to lipids, carbs, phosphate
273
paracrine system
signaling molecules secreted by one cell bind to receptors on other cells in the local area
274
eukaryotic flagella
whipping motion, microtubules of tubulin
275
smooth ER
lipid synthesis and modification
276
mammalia
warm blooded, vertebrates, hair, live birth
277
missense mutation
change the codon such that a different amino acid is incorporated
278
homologues
related, non-identical chromosomes
279
evolution
any change in the gene pool across generations
280
example of cell with flagella
sperm
281
M phase of the cell cycle
mitosis
282
are fungi auto or heterotrophic
heterotrophic
283
genetic drift
change in the allele frequency in a population due to random, non-genetic, non-selective factors
284
unambiguous
given a codon, must know the amino acid
285
where is rRNA assembled
nucleolus
286
when do the centromeres split in meisos
meiosis two
287
is connective tissue dense?
no
288
microtubule
one of the three cytoskeleton structures, heterodimer of tubulin, move vesicles and organelles
289
simple diffusion
doesn't require ATP
290
co-dominance
both phenotypes are expressed at the same time in a heterozygote
291
promoter
site where RNA polymerase binds to DNA
292
endocrine system
hormone signaling
hormones made and secreted in endocrine glands and travel in the bloodstream, then bind to receptors in the membrane of cytosol
293
saprophytic
eat dead or decaying matter
294
nucleotide excision
removal of multiple bases surrounding an error
295
microfilaments
provide the cell with structure, make up the thin filament of the muscle to track along which mysoin and motor proteins move during muscle contraction
296
cytoskeleton
network of microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments that provide the cell with structure and highway of intracellular transport
297
okazaki fragments
short segments of new DNA synthesized on the lagging strand
298
oncogenes
cancer causing
299
permanent (or semi permanent) repression
methylation or covalent modifications that prevent or reduce transcription
300
nonsense mutation
changes a codon to a premature stop codon
301
example of lysogenic virus
HIV without AIDS symptoms
302
kinetochore
specialized group of proteins to which the spindle fibers attach directly during mitosis and meiosis
303
stop codons
UAG
UAA
UGA
304
phagocytosis
receptor mediated endocytosis that involves ingestion of bacteria and large particles
305
g protein cascade
changes form, GDP --> GTP on the alpha subunit, alpha attaches andenyl cyclase, which produces cAMP from ATP, cAMP to protein kinase A, phosphorylation
306
northern blot
southern blot for RNA
307
southern blot
used to verify the presence/absence of a specific DNA sequence, indicates the relative size of restriction fragments
308
taq polymerase
from thermophilic bacteria, work at high temperatures
309
gap junction
tunnels between adjacent cells allowing exchange
310
limited expressivity
various individuals have the same genotype and show the disease phenotype but individuals are impacted to varying degrees
311
centrosome
amorphous area of proteins and nucleating factors containing centrioles
organizes microtubules, plays a role in cell division
312
chromosomal mutations
duplications
deletions
translocations
inversions
313
membrane receptors
a protein that specifically binds a signaling molecule and initiates a cellular response
314
examples of frameshift mutations
insertion or deletion
315
exocytosis
process by which a vesicle on the inside of the plasma membrane fuses with the membrane, dumping its contents into the extracellular environment
316
carrying capacity
maximum number of individuals an ecosystem or environment can sustain
317
telomerase
any enzyme that adds length to the telomeres
318
lactase
enzyme tat digests lactose
319
termination
release factors read a stop codon, synthesis stops, polypeptide released
320
proofreading
DNA polymerase often catches and replaces mismatched pairs
321
when do fungi reproduce asexually
when life is good
322
why are phages important
vectors can be inserted into phages or plasmids to copy it
