Biology Flashcards
(183 cards)
1
Q
Cells
A
fundamental structural unit of living; the smallest units that display the characteristics of life.
2
Q
Five characteristics of living things:
A
(1) unique structural organization
(2) metabolic processes
(3) generative processes
(4) responsive processes
(5) control processes.
3
Q
What makes something alive?
A
The ability to interact with their surroundings, to manipulate energy and matter.
4
Q
Unique Structural Organization
A
of living things can be seen at the molecular, cellular, and organism levels
5
Q
Organism
A
any living thing that is capable of functioning independently, whether it consists of a single cell or a complex group of interacting cells
6
Q
Metabolic Process
A
All the chemical reactions involving molecules required for a cell to grow, reproduce and make repairs. taking in nutrition, processing nutrients (not just digestion, but how do you utilize the nutrients), eliminating waste
7
Q
Nutrients
A
Molecules required by organisms for growth, reproduction, or repair. (food)
8
Q
responsive processes:
A
irritability, individual adaptation, and evolution, which is also known as adaptation of populations. Allows organisms to react to surroundings in meaningful way.
an individual’s ability to recognize that something in its surroundings has changed (a stimulus) and respond rapidly to it- Irritability
an organism’s reaction to a stimulus, but it is slower than an irritability response, because it requires growth or some other fundamental change in an organism - individual adaptation.
fundamental change in an entire population - evolution
9
Q
Coordination
A
occurs within an organism at several levels. At the metabolic level, all the chemical reactions of an organism are linked together in specific pathways. The control of all the reactions ensures efficient, handling of the nutrients needed to maintain life.
10
Q
Regulation
A
involves altering the rate of processes.
11
Q
Control Process
A
mechanisms that ensure an organism will carry out all metabolic activities in the proper sequence (coordination) and at the proper rate (regulation).
12
Q
Homeostasis
A
The process of maintaining a constant internal environment.
13
Q
atomic structure
A
constructed of 3 major sub-atomic particles: neutrons, electrons. protons
14
Q
element
A
fundamental chemical substances made up of only one kind of atom
15
Q
neutron
A
heavy subatomic particle that does not have a charge; located in the nucleus
16
Q
proton
A
heavy subatomic particle that has a positive charge; located in nucleus- determines identity of atom
17
Q
nucleus
A
central core of the atom - mass is concentrated here
18
Q
electron
A
light subatomic particle with a negative charge - moves about outside nucleus in “energy levels”
19
Q
mass number
A
sum of protons & neutrons in an atom - used to identify isotopes
20
Q
nobel elements
A
He (helium) Ne (neon) Ar (argon)
21
Q
octet rule
A
tendency to seek a filled outer layer (8 - or 2 in second level) thorough chemical reactions
22
Q
Inert
A
elements that have full outermost energy levels under ordinary circumstances and do not normally undergo chemical reactions.
23
Q
chemical reaction
A
the process through which atoms gain or lose electrons on their outer energy level
24
Q
Diatomic
A
when the number of atoms in a single molecule number two of the same molecule.
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monotomic
when a single atom is a molecule (mostly nobles: He, Ne Ar)
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compound
a chemical substance made of of two or more elements combined in specific rations.
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energy level
region surrounding atomic nucleus - containing electrons - the number of electrons determines VOLUME
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chemical bonds
attractive forces that hold the atoms of a molecule together
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formula
describes what elements a compound contains
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three phases of matter
solid, liquid, gas
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solid
strong attractive forces, low kinetic energy
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liquid
enough kinetic energy to overcome the attractive forces holding it together - will take on the shape of its container
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gas
great deal of kinetic energy - moving fast and push each other apart so gas expands
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Triple Point Theory
with the right temperature & pressure an element can exist as a solid, liquid and fas simultaneously.
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ionic bond
formed after atoms transfer electrons to achieve a full outermost energy level.
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ion
any positively or negatively charge atom
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anion
all negatively charged ions
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cation
all positively charged ions
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covalent bond
a chemical bond formed by the sharing of a pair of electrons
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mixture
matter containing 2 or more substances NOT in set proportions
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oxidation reduction reaction
chemical change; electrons transferred from 1 atom to another with its energy - LEO Lose Electron Oxidation, GER gain electron reduction
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Phosphorylation Synthesis Reaction
takes place when a cluster of atoms known as a phosphate group is added to another molecule, important reaction because the bond between a phosphate group and another atom contains the potential energy that is used by all cells to power numerous activities.
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pH scale
7 = neutral. greater than seven - basic, less than seven acidic.
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empirical formula
indicates the number of each kind of element with in a molecule
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structural formula
the arrangement of the atoms and their bonding with in the molecule
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isomers
molecules that have the same empirical formula but different structural formulas
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macro molecules
large organic molecules: carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids
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-ose
suffix that indicates a carbohydrate
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carbohydrates
carbon-hydrogen-oxygen linked together to form monomers called simple sugars - monosaccharides
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blood sugar
glucose found in the blood
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sugars
always have twice as many hydrogens (H) as carbons (C)
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complex carbohydrates
when simple sugars combine with each other
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disaccharide
two simple sugars bonded to make a complex carbohydrate
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trisaccaride
three simple sugars bonded together to make a complex carbohydrate
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proteins
polymers made up of monomers known as amino acids
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polysaccharide
a complex carbohydrate made up of 2 or more sugars
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peptide bond
covalent bond formed when two amino acids undergo dehydration synthesis and the N of the amino bonds to the C of the other
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polypeptide chain
composed of specific sequence of bonded aminos - millions of combos possible)
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primary structure
a listing of amino acids in their proper order with in a particular polypeptide
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secondary structure
twisted forms of polypeptides, usually a corkscrew or pleated shape, held together by hydrogen bonds at different locations in the chain
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beta-pleated sheet
H bonds in the secondary structure that make flat folds
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genes
specific portions of DNA that tell the cell to link particular amino acids in a specific order. responsible for primary structure
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prion
a rogue protein - doesn't do good, mimes brain proteins but are folded differently and causes the DNA to replicate improperly. causes brain tissue death - BSE Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (mad cow) and Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease caused by prions.
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3 categories of protiens
structural proteins, regulator proteins, carrier proteins
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regulator proteins
help contraol the chemical activities of cells and organisms: enzymes, hormones, cheperones
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regulator protein names
insulin, glucagon, oxytocin
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carrier proteins
prick up molecules at one place and transport them to another, either stationary through a membrane or with in the blood
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structural proteins
important for maintaining the shape of cells and organisms - cell membrane, muscle tissue, tendons, blood cells
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Nucleic acid
complex organic polymers that store and transfer genetic information - DNA & RNA
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DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid - genetic material composed of 2 strands which forma twisted ladder attached by hydrogen bonds - thousands of molecules long -
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RNA
ribonucleic acid - uses genetic information (DNA) to manufacture proteins
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base pairing rule
Adenine + Thymine (Uracil in RNA, no T) and Guanine + Cytosine
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chromosomes
super coiled DNA that will transfer to a new "daughter" cell
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gene abilites
a segment of DNA that does: 1) replicate by directing copies of itself 2) mutate or chemically change and transmit changes to future generations 3)store info on determining characteristics of cells and organisms 4) use this information to direct the synthesis of structural, carrier and regulator proteins.
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RNA forms
messenger mRNA, ribosomal rRNA, transfer tRNA
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mRNA
single strand copy of DNA for a specific gene which peels of and links with a ribosome where the genetic message can be translated into a protein molecule.
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rRNA
copy of DNA that is twisted and covered in protein to become a ribosome
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tRNA
clover leaf shaped copy of DNA that is transferred to the RIBOSOME
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lipids
fat. three types: true fats, phospholipids and steroids
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true fats
complex organic molecules used to provide energy. made of glycerol and fatty acids
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fatty acid
one of the building blocks of a fat. composed of a long chain carbon skeleton with a carboxylic acid functional group
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saturated fat
carbon skeleton of a fatty acid molecule that has the maximum amount of H bonded to it as possible (no double bonds)
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unsaturated fat
carbon skeleton of a fatty acid molecule that has double bonds in the C instead of an additional H.
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cis
same side
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trans
opposite side
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cis fatty acid
on an unsaturated fat when the H atoms are bonded on the same side of the double bonded C
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trans fatty acid
on an unsaturated fat when the H is bonded on the opposite sides of the double bonded C
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cell theory
all living things are made up of cells
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cell wall
plants only, produced on the outside of the cell, composed of the complex carbohydrate called Cellulose
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nucleus
the central body that contains the information system for the cell; also the central part of an atom, containing protons and neutrons
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cytoplasm
fluid portion of the cell that contains genetic information
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organelle
small structures with in the cytoplasm with functions related to its structure
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eukaryotic
all cells with a nucleus and a large number of organelles (animals, plants, fungi, protozoa, algae)
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prokaryotic
bacteria and archaea -do not have a typical nucleus bound by a nuclear membrane and lack many of the other membranous cellular organelles
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3 basic cell traits
outer membrane, cytoplasm, genetic material
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cellular membranes
composed of phospholipids (and proteins, cholesterol and carbohydrates) forming a selectively permeable membrane to let waste out and nutrients in.
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fluid mosaic model
the concept that the cellular membrane is composed primarily of protein and phospholipid molecules that are able to shift and flow past one another.
phospholipids do not BOND, they are attracted to eachother
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hydrophilic
water loving phosphate end of the phospholipid
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hydrophobic
fatty acid end of the phospholipid - not water soluble
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phospholipid bi layer
what is formed as the fatty acid/hydrophobic ends of the phospholipid attract each other
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protein function in the cell membrane
1) transport molecules across the membrane 2) act as attachment points 3) function as identity tags
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endoplasmic reticulum
folded membranes and tubes throughout cells which create a large surface area for chemical reactions to occur
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Rough Endoplasmic reticulum
ER with ribosomes attached to its surface
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smooth endoplasmic reticulum
ER without ribosomes attached.
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Golgi apparatus
5-20 flattened membranous sacs which: 1. it modifies molecules shipped to it from elsewhere in the cell,
2. it manufactures some polysaccharides and lipids, and 3. it packages molecules within sacs.
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lysosomes
tiny vesicles containing enzymes capable of digesting carbohydrates - they are for digestion and destruction
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vacuoles
larger membrane enclosed structure capable of holding something
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vesicles
smaller membrane enclosed structure capable of holding something
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nuclear membrane
separates the genetic material (DNA) from the cytoplasm
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Nuclear pore complexes
openings in the nuclear membrane and consisting of proteins, which collectively form barrel-shaped pores. These pores allow relatively large molecules, such as RNA, to pass through the nuclear membrane. Thousands of molecules move in and out through these pores each second.
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mitochondrion
organelle containing enzymes responsible for aerobic cellular respiration - make ATP
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chlorophyll
green pigment in chloroplasts
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photosynthesis
metabolic process in which light energy is converted to food energy
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Ribosome
small structure composed of two protein and ribonucleic acid subunits, involved in the assembly of proteins from amino acids.
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cytoskeleton
microtubes, micro filaments, intermediate filaments which provide shape and support, non membranous organelles made of protiens.
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centrioles
two sets of microtubes at right angles around the nucleus
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centrosome
where the microtubes are organized
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spindle
made of microtubules - chromosomes attach here before splitting
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flagella
made of microtubules - long hairs with whiplike or corkscrew movement
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cilla
made of microtubules - short hairs with oar like movement - many
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Life cycle of a red blood cell
start in bone marrow with a nucleus before they are released into the bloodstream to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide, they lose their nuclei. As a consequence, red blood cells are able to function only for about 120 days before they disintegrate.
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Chromosome
double- stranded DNA molecules with attached protein (nucleoprotein) coiled into a short, compact unit. before coiled, called chromatin.
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nucleolus
in nucleus - where ribosomes are manufactured
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nucleoplasm
cytoplasm found in the nucleus
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net movement
movement in one direction, minus the movement in the other
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diffusion
net movement of a molecule from a place of high concentration to low concentration
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concentration of diffusion gradient
the difference in concentration of molecules over a specific area - molecules will move to where there is less concentration.
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dynamic equilibrium
exists when there is no diffusion gradient
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diffusion
a passive process that does not require energy
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osmosis
net movement of water through s selectively permeable membrane
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isotonic
when the concentration of water and dissolved particles is equal both in the cell and around the cell
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hypertonic
solution with more dissolved material and less water
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hypotonic
solution with less dissolved materials and more water
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facilitated diffusion
passive transport involving carrier proteins and ion channels
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active transport
requires energy, using a carrier protien to move molecules agains a concentration gradient
136
endocytosis
larger particles are transported across the plasma membrane by being wrapped in membrane (phospholipids) and transferred INTO the cell. Three typos: phagocytosis, pinocytosis,receptor mediated cytosis.
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exocytosis
particles and materials are transported from within the cell to outside of the cell wrapped in phospholipids. as they reach the cell membrane, the phospholipids rejoin the membrane bilayer and the materials are released to the outside of the cell.
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phagocytosis
process of engulfing large particles such as cells in membrane to transport them into cell. makes a vacuole.
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pinocytosis
process of engulfing liquid s and materials dissolved in liquids to transport them into a cell. makes a vesicle.
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pino-
drinking
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phago-
eating
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nutrient
molecules required by organisms for growth, reproduction and repair
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activation energy
an input of energy used to make reactants unstable and more likely to have the biochemical reactions needed to utilize the nutrients
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catalyst
a chemical that speeds up a reaction but is not used up on the reaction
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enzyme
protein molecule that acts as a catalyst to speed the rate of a reaction without raising the temperature of the organism unsustainably
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active site
place on the enzyme that causes a specific part of the substrate (reactant) to change
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Substrate
enzymes to combine with reactant and lower the activation energy. Each enzyme has a specific size and three-dimensional shape, which in turn is specific to the kind of reactant with which it can combine. The enzyme physically fits with the reactant. The molecule to which the enzyme attaches itself (the reactant) is known as the substrate. When the enzyme attaches itself to the substrate molecule, a new, temporary molecule—the enzyme-substrate complex—is formed (figure 5.2). When the substrate is combined with the enzyme, its chemical bonds are less stable and more likely to be altered and form new bonds.
148
-ase
suffix denoting an enzyme
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cofactors
inorganic ions or organic molecules that serve as enzyme helpers eg zinc, magnesium and iron
150
coenzyme
organic molecule that functions as a cofactor eg certain amino acids, vitamins and nitrogenous bases
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FAD
flavin adenine dinucleotide: made when vitamin B2 is metabolized. coenzyme highly attracted to Hydrogen which when attached to H becomes FADH and carries H electrons to and from oxidation reduction reactions.
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NAD
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide: coenzyme that is highly attracted to Hydrogen which when attached to H is called NADH and carries H electrons to and from many oxidation reduction reactions.
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anabolism
biochemical pathways (series of enzyme controlled reactions) that result in the syntheses of a new and larger compound
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catabolism
biochemical pathways (aka metabolic pathways) that result in the breakdown of compounds
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ATP
adenosine triphospate: used to transfer energy, a molecule of adenine plus ribose and 3 phosphate groups that stores energy when made and releases it when broken apart.
156
high energy bonds
easily broken phosphate bonds that release energy for cellular processes. eg two of the phosphate bonds in ATP
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autotrophs
organisms that are able to utilize sunlight energy directly to make energy containing organic molecules
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chemosynthesis
prokaryotic organisms that use inorganic chemical reactions as a source of energy to make larger organic molecules
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heterotrophs
require organic molecules as food and get their energy from the chemical bonds of food molecules such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
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aerobic process
processes requiring oxygen
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anaerobic process
process that does not require oxygen
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glycolysis
a series of enzyme controlled reactions that take place in the cytoplasm of cells and results in the breakdown of glucose with the release of ATP. requires the use of 2 ATP and results in formation of 4 ATP (net 2 ATP) 2 NADH and 2 pyruvic acid molecules
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Krebs cycle
series of enzyme controlled reactions in the mitochondiorn that breaks down the pyruvic produced by glogolysis. takes 5 H attaches them to FAD and NAD resulting in 4 NADH and 1 FADH and 1 ATP
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Electron Transport System
series of enzyme controlled reactions that converts the kinetic energy of H electrons (carried to it by the produced NADH and FADH from the Krebs cycle) into ATP: uses O to accept the H and results in H2O, NAD, FAD and 32 ATP
165
electron transport system
takes place within the mito- chondrion, where:
1. Oxygen is used up as the oxygen atoms accept hydro- gens from NADH and FADH2 forming water (H2O).
2. NAD and FAD are released, to be used over again. 3. Thirty-two ATPs are produced.
166
taxonomy
the science of naming organisms and grouping them into logical categories.
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Domains
three major categories of organisms; Bacteria, Archaea, Eucarya
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Kingdom
subdivision of organisms in a domain based primarily on differences in metabolism and genetic composition. in Eucarya, there are four majors: Plantae, Animalia, Protista, Fungi
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Phylum
subdivision of Kingdom. AKA division
170
Class
a subdivision of phylum. for example, w/in the phylum Chordata, there are seven classes: mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and three classes of fishes.
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Order
a subdivision with in Class
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family
a subdivision within order
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genus
group of closely related organisms within a family.
174
domain bacteria shapes
spirals, rods and spheres
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Methanogens
are anaerobic, methane-producing organisms extremophyl acrchae. They can be found in sewage, swamps, and the intestinal tracts of termites and ruminant animals, such as cows, sheep, and goats. They are even found in the intestines of humans.
176
Halobacteria
extremophile archae that live in very salty environments, such as the Great Salt Lake (Utah), salt ponds, and brine solutions. Many have a reddish pigment and can be present in such high numbers that they color the water red. Some contain a special kind of chlorophyll and are therefore capable of generating their ATP by a kind of photosynthesis but they do not release oxygen.
177
Thermophilic Archaea
extremophile archaea that live in environments that normally have very high temperatures and high concentrations of sulfur (e.g., hot sulfur springs and around deep-sea hydrothermal vents). Over 500 species of thermophiles have been identified at the openings of hydrothermal vents in the open oceans. One such thermophile, Pyrolobus fumarii, grows in a hot spring in Yellowstone National Park. It grows best at 106°C and can grow at temperatures up to 113°C but will not grow below 90°C. Another species that survives at 122°C has been dis- covered. Some of these heat-loving Archaea also live in extremely acid conditions.
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hydroxyl functional group
- OH ; carbohydrate
179
Carboxyl functional group
|
C = O ; Carbohydrate
|
180
Amino functional group
```
H
|
- N ; Carbohydrate
|
H
```
181
Sulfhydryl functional group
-S-H ; protein
182
phosphate functional group
```
O
||
- O - P - O ; Nucleic acid
||
O
```
183
methyl functional group
```
H
|
- C - H ; fat
|
H
```
