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Biology - Unit 1 > Biology AoS #1 Preparation > Flashcards

Biology AoS #1 Preparation Flashcards

1
Q

What are integral proteins?

A

Proteins that are a permanent part of the membrane

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2
Q

What are transmembrane proteins?

A

Integral proteins that span the entire bilayer

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3
Q

What are peripheral proteins?

A

Proteins that a temporarily attached to the plasma membrane

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4
Q

What are the four functions of proteins?

A
  1. Transport
  2. Catalysis
  3. Communication
  4. Adhesion
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5
Q

What is the transport role for proteins?

A

Channels or pumps that control what enters and exits the cell, making the plasma membrane selectively permeable

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6
Q

What is the proteins role of catalysis?

A

Speeding up chemical reactions with the help of a protein group called enzymes

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7
Q

What is the proteins role for communication?

A

Receive or recognize cells and molecules. Often attached to the cytoskeleton to transmit signals into the cell.

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8
Q

What is the proteins role for adhesion?

A

Stick to other cells, the extracellular matrix, or the cytoskeleton

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9
Q

Describe the structure of carbohydrates.

A

Usually in chains that extend outside of the cell, rooted in the membrane to lipids or protein

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10
Q

Describe the function of carbohydrates.

A

Aid with cell-cell communication, signaling, recognition, of self or non self (foreign), molecules, and adhesion

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11
Q

Describe the structure of cholesterol.

A

Embeds itself between the fatty acid tails of the phospholipid bilayer in animal cell

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12
Q

What are the functions of cholesterol.

A
  • Regulates the fluidity of the membrane
  • At higher temperature, keeps membrane bound together
  • At lower temperatures, it disrupts the fatty acid tails, stopping the phospholipids from becoming a solid boundary
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13
Q

What are the two main factors of the fluid mosaic model?

A

1) Molecules that make up the membrane aren’t held static in one place

2) Many different types of molecules are embedded in the plasma membrane

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14
Q

Define active transport

A

Movement of molecules across a semi-permeable membrane that requires energy

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15
Q

What are the two types of active transport?

A
  • Protein mediated
  • Bulk transport
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16
Q

What does protein mediated transport require?

A

Energy; usually in the form of ATP

Membrane proteins; protein carriers, protein channels

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17
Q

Brief version of steps for protein mediated transport?

A

1) Binding
2) Conformational change
3) Release

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18
Q

Describe the first step for protein mediated transport.

A

The target molecule for transport binds to a specific protein pump

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19
Q

Describe the second step for protein mediated transport.

A

Energy released from the reaction ATP = ADP + P which causes a conformational change within the protein pump.

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20
Q

Describe the third step for protein mediated transport.

A

The target molecule is pushed through the protein and released to the other side of the membrane

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21
Q

How many steps are there for protein mediated transport?

A

3

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22
Q

Where does the energy come from in step 2 of conformational change for protein mediated transport?

A

Energy comes from breaking the bond between the second and third phosphate ions in the ATP molecule

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23
Q

Is bulk transport passive or active transport?

A

Active

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24
Q

Define bulk transport

A

The movement of groups of molecules across the plasma membrane

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25
Q

What does bulk transport use?

A

Vesicles

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26
Q

What are the two forms of bulk transport?

A

Exocytosis and Endocytosis

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27
Q

Define exocytosis.

A

A type of active transport; bulk transport; involves molecules exiting the cell

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28
Q

Define endocytosis

A

A type of active transport; bulk transport; involves molecules entering the cell

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29
Q

How many steps are there in exocytosis?

A

3

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30
Q

What are the brief names for each three steps of exocytosis?

A
  1. Vesicle transport
  2. Fusion
  3. Release
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31
Q

Describe step one of exocytosis.

A

A vesicle containing secretory products is transported to the plasma membrane

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32
Q

Describe step two of exocytosis.

A

The membranes of the vesicles and cell fuse

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33
Q

Describe step three of exocytosis

A

Secretory products are released from the vesicle and out of the cell

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34
Q

What are secretory products?

A

Substances inside a vesicle that are being transported out of the cell.

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35
Q

What happens when the membranes of the vesicles and cells’ fuse?

A

When a vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane it adds phospholipids to the bilayer and makes the plasma membrane surface area slightly bigger

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36
Q

Why is endocytosis important?

A

It is important as many molecules the cell needs to survive are too large to take in through protein channels

It can also be an effective defense mechanism for the cell

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37
Q

One worded steps of endocytosis.

A

1) Fold
2) Trap
3) Bud

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38
Q

Describe the fold stage of endocytosis.

A

The plasma membrane folds inwards to form a cavity that fills with extracellular fluid and the target molecules.

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39
Q

Describe the trap stage of endocytosis.

A

The plasma membrane continues folding back on itself until two ends of the membrane meets and fuse. This traps the molecules inside the vesicle

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40
Q

Describe the bud stage of endocytosis

A

The vesicle pinches off from the membrane. It can then be transported to the appropriate cellular location

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41
Q

What are two types of endocytosis.

A
  • phagocytosis
  • pinocytosis
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42
Q

Define phagocytosis

A

Endocytosis for food particles and other solid materials

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43
Q

Define pinocytosis

A

Endocytosis of liquid or dissolved substances

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44
Q

Define passive transport.

A

The movement of molecules through a semi-permeable membrane and down the concentration gradient without an input of energy

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45
Q

What are the three types of passive transport?

A
  • Diffusion
  • Facilitated diffusion
  • Osmosis
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46
Q

Define diffusion

A

The movement of particles down their concentration gradients

Occurs when molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration

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47
Q

Two features allowing molecules to diffuse freely

A
  • Polarity
  • Size
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48
Q

How does polarity affect a molecules ability to diffuse freely?

A

Nonpolar, uncharged, or hydrophobic molecules can cross the membrane as most of the plasma membrane is nonpolar

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49
Q

How does size affect a molecules ability to diffuse freely?

A

Small molecules like water are able to slip through the lipids in the phospholipid bilayer. However, if the molecule is highly charged, than it can not pass.

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50
Q

What affects the speed of diffusion?

A

Diffusion is faster when the concentration gradient is steeper - that is when there is a greater difference in concentration between intracellular and extracellular environments. It will also speed up at higher temperatures.

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51
Q

Define facilitated diffusion

A

Molecules that are too large or too charged to freely cross the plasma membrane can use a membrane protein, such as a protein channel, to move down their concentration gradient into or out of the cell

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52
Q

What are protein channels?

A

Pores or holes in the membrane that let specific substances through

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53
Q

What are carrier proteins?

A

Proteins that bind to the substance that is being transported and undergo a conformational change to push the substance down its concentration through to the other side of the membrane. They return to their original shape once the molecule has been transported

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54
Q

What is conformational change?

A

A change in three dimensional shape of macromolecules such as proteins

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55
Q

Does diffusion (simple) require a protein?

A

No.

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56
Q

Define osmosis

A

The diffusion of water from an area of low solute to an area of high solute concentration

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57
Q

What property of cells does tonicity effect?

A

Size

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58
Q

Do all cells have a plasma membrane?

A

Yes

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59
Q

What does the plasma membrane separate?

A

The intracellular from the extracellular environments

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60
Q

What is the name of the bilayer that makes up the plasma membrane

A

The phospholipid bilayer

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61
Q

What is another name for the plasma membrane?

A

The cell membrane

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62
Q

What is the main component of the plasma membrane?

A

Phospholipids

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63
Q

What two main components make up a phospholipid

A

Phosphate head, two fatty acid tails

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64
Q

What is the phosphate head in the plasma membrane made up of?

A

Made of glycerol and phosphate group

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65
Q

What charge do the phosphate heads have?

A

Negative

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66
Q

Is the phosphate head hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

A

Hydrophilic

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67
Q

Hydrophilic means in two words

A

Water loving

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68
Q

Is the phosphate head polar or nonpolar?

A

Polar

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69
Q

What are the two fatty acid tails made up of?

A

Long chains of carbon and hydrogen

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70
Q

What charge do the two fatty acid tails have?

A

No charge

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71
Q

Are the fatty acid tails hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

A

Hydrophobic

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72
Q

Are the fatty acid tails polar or nonpolar?

A

Nonpolar

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73
Q

Hydrophobic in two words

A

Water fearing

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74
Q

The fatty acid tails form what portion of the bilayer?

A

Middle

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75
Q

What are amphipathic molecules?

A

Molecules that have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts

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76
Q

Is the plasma membrane amphipathic?

A

Yes

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77
Q

What is another name for amphipathic?

A

Amphiphilic

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78
Q

Animal cell reaction in a hypotonic solution.

A

Lysed

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79
Q

Plant cell reaction in a hypotonic solution

A

Turgid

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80
Q

Animal cell in an isotonic solution.

A

Normal

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81
Q

Plant cell in an isotonic solution.

A

Flaccid

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82
Q

Animal cell in a hypertonic solution

A

Shrivelled

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83
Q

Plant cell in a hypertonic solution

A

Plasmolysed

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84
Q

What are eight qualities that all living things possess

A
  1. Movement
  2. Respiration
  3. Sensitivity
  4. Growth
  5. Reproduction
  6. Equilibrium
  7. Excretion
  8. Nutrition
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85
Q

3 things that the cell theory states

A
  1. All living things are made up of cells
  2. Cells are the smallest and most basic units of life
  3. All cells come from pre-existing cells
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86
Q

What two categories can ALL organisms be classified as

A

Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic

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87
Q

The six kingdoms of life

A
  • Animalia
  • Archaea
  • Bacteria
  • Fungi
  • Plantae
  • Protista
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88
Q

What 4 things do both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have in common?

A
  • Plasma membrane
  • Cytosol
  • Ribosomes
  • DNA
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89
Q

Do eukaryotes have membrane bound organelles?

A

Yes

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90
Q

Do prokaryotes have membrane bound organelles?

A

No

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91
Q

Explain the DNA organization in eukaryotes

A

More than one linear strand of DNA packaged in a chromosome in a nucleus

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92
Q

Explain the DNA organization in prokaryotes

A

One circular chromosome and additional plasmids

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93
Q

Eukaryotic organism nature

A

Can be unicellular or multicelluar

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94
Q

Prokaryotic organism nature

A

Unicellular

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95
Q

Which is larger in size

Eukaryotes or prokaryotes?

A

Eukaryotes are larger in size than prokaryotes

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96
Q

Eukaryotic methods of cell replication

A

Mitosis and Meiosis

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97
Q

Prokaryotic method of cell replication

A

Binary fission

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98
Q

Three domains of living things

A
  • Archaea
  • Bacteria
  • Eukarya
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99
Q

Which of the three living domains are prokaryotic domains?

A

Archaea and Bacteria

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100
Q

Which of the three living domains are eukaryotic domains?

A

Eukarya

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101
Q

What are the four kingdoms of Eukarya?

A
  • Animalia
  • Fungi
  • Plantae
  • Protista
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102
Q

How many kingdoms are there of life?

A

6

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103
Q

Animalia - type of organism

A

Eukaryotic

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104
Q

Archaea - type of organism

A

Prokaryotic

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105
Q

Bacteria - type of organism

A

Prokaryotic

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106
Q

Fungi - type of organism

A

Eukaryotic

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107
Q

Plantae - type of organism

A

Eukaryotic

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108
Q

Protista - type of organism

A

Eukaryotic

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109
Q

Animalia - organism nature

A

Multicellular

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110
Q

Archaea - organism nature

A

Unicellular

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111
Q

Bacteria - organism nature

A

Unicellular

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112
Q

Fungi - organism nature

A

Unicellular or multicellular

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113
Q

Plantae - organism nature

A

Multicellular

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114
Q

Protista - organism nature

A

Unicellular or multicellular

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115
Q

Are archaea living things?

A

Yes

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116
Q

Does cell theory apply to all living things?

A

Yes

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117
Q

What is the nucleus’ role?

A

To protect and confine genetic information (DNA) of the cell

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118
Q

What smaller structure is inside the nucleus?

A

Nucleolus

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119
Q

What does the nucleolus produce?

A

Ribosomes

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120
Q

Where can ribosomes be found in the cell?

A

They can float freely in the cytoplasm or be attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum

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121
Q

What do ribosomes help make?

A

Proteins

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122
Q

What is the rough endoplasmic reticulum’s job?

A

To synthesize and modify proteins

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123
Q

Where is the rough endoplasmic reticulum found in the cell?

A

Typically surrounds, or is close to the nucleus

124
Q

Is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum coated with ribosomes?

A

No

125
Q

What is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum responsible for?

A

The production of lipids

126
Q

What is the Golgi Apparatus’ job?

A

The site of packaging, protein sorting, and modification for use in the cell or for export

127
Q

What can fuse with the Golgi Body?

A

Protein-filled vesicles

128
Q

What is another name for the Golgi Apparatus?

A

Golgi Body

129
Q

What does a lysosome contain?

A

Digestive enzymes

130
Q

What is the job of the lysosome?

A

Responsible for breaking down cell waste and toxins, acting like a garbage disposal

131
Q

What is the mitochondrion’s job?

A

The site of aerobic cellular respiration, a chemical reaction that produces ATP which is required to power cellular processes

132
Q

Does the mitochondria contain their own DNA and ribosomes?

A

Yes

133
Q

What process occurs in chloroplasts?

A

Photosynthesis

134
Q

What color are chloroplasts

A

Green

135
Q

Do chloroplasts contain their own DNA and ribosomes?

A

Yes

136
Q

What type of cell are chloroplasts found in?

A

Plant cells

137
Q

What is the job of the vacuole?

A

Used for water and solute storage.

In plant cells, help maintain structure

138
Q

What is the cell wall?

A

A sturdy border outside the plasma membrane that provides strength and structure to plant, bacterial, and fungal cells.

139
Q

What is a vesicle?

A

A small, membrane bound sac that transports substances into and out of a cell, stores substances within a cell

140
Q

What is the function of the cytoskeleton

A

Critical for maintaining shape and transporting vesicles around the cell.

141
Q

What are the three non-membrane-bound organelles?

A

Ribosomes, cell wall, cytoskeleton

142
Q

What is the cells primary method of producing energy?

A

Cellular respiration

143
Q

Two ways cellular respiration can occur

A

Aerobically, anaerobically

144
Q

Word formula for aerobic cellular respiration

A

Glucose + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy

145
Q

Chemical formula for aerobic cellular respiration

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H20 + 36 ATP

146
Q

Which two cells are chloroplasts found in?

A

Plant and some types of protista

147
Q

Word formula of photosynthesis

A

Carbon dioxide + water = Glucose + Oxygen

148
Q

Chemical formula formula for photosynthesis

A

6CO2 + 6H20 = C6H12O6 + 6O2

149
Q

Three main differences between plant and animal cells.

A
  • Plant cells have a cell wall, whilst animal cells do not
  • Plant cells have chloroplasts whilst animal cells do not
  • Vacuoles in animal cells are small but many; vacuoles in plants are large and in one
150
Q

Is the nucleus a membrane-bound organelle?

A

Yes

151
Q

Is the rough endoplasmic reticulum a membrane-bound organelle?

A

Yes

152
Q

Is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum a membrane bound organelle?

A

Yes

153
Q

Are ribosomes membrane bound?

A

No

154
Q

Is the Golgi Body membrane bound?

A

Yes

155
Q

Is the lysosome membrane bound?

A

Yes

156
Q

Is the mitochondria membrane bound?

A

Yes

157
Q

Is the chloroplast membrane bound?

A

Yes

158
Q

Are vacuoles membrane bound?

A

Yes

159
Q

Is the plasma membrane membrane bound?

A

No

160
Q

Is the cell wall membrane bound?

A

No

161
Q

Is the vesicle membrane bound?

A

Yes

162
Q

Is the cytoskeleton membrane bound?

A

No

163
Q

Is the nucleus found in plant cells?

A

Yes

164
Q

Is the rough endoplasmic reticulum found in plant cells?

A

Yes

165
Q

Is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum found in plant cells?

A

Yes

166
Q

Are ribosomes found in plant cells?

A

Yes

167
Q

Is the Golgi Body found in plant cells?

A

Yes

168
Q

Is the lysosome found in plant cells?

A

Yes

169
Q

Is the mitochondria found in plant cells?

A

Yes

170
Q

Are chloroplasts found in plant cells?

A

Yes

171
Q

Are vacuoles found in plant cells?

A

Yes

172
Q

Is the plasma membrane found in plant cells?

A

Yes

173
Q

Is the cell wall found in plant cells

A

Yes

174
Q

Are vesicles found in plant cells?

A

Yes

175
Q

Is the cytoskeleton found in plant cells?

A

Yes

176
Q

Is the nucleus found in animal cells?

A

Yes

177
Q

Is the rough endoplasmic reticulum found in animal cells?

A

Yes

178
Q

Is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum found in animal cells?

A

Yes.

179
Q

Are the ribosomes found in animal cells?

A

Yes

180
Q

Is the Golgi Body found in animal cells?

A

Yes

181
Q

Are lysosomes found in animal cells?

A

Yes

182
Q

Are mitochondria found in animal cells?

A

Yes

183
Q

Are chloroplasts found in animal cells?

A

No

184
Q

Are vacuoles found in animal cells?

A

Yes

185
Q

Is the plasma membrane found in animal cells?

A

Yes

186
Q

Is the cell wall found in animal cells?

A

No

187
Q

Are vesicles found in animal cells?

A

Yes

188
Q

Is the cytoskeleton found in animal cells?

A

Yes

189
Q

The two benefits of having small cells

A
  1. The exchange of materials with the extracellular environment can occur efficiently and effectively due to a high surface area to volume ratio.
  2. Distances to travel within the cell are smaller, so the intracellular transport of molecules is faster
190
Q

Why do cells need to maximize their surface area to volume ratio?

A

To increase transport efficiency

191
Q

Three purposes of cell replication

A
  1. Growth and development
  2. Maintenance and repair
  3. Reproduction
192
Q

What is the name of the process through prokaryotic cells reproduce?

A

Binary fission

193
Q

What type of reproduction does binary fission belong to?

A

Asexual reproduction

194
Q

What does binary fission produce?

A

Two identical copies of a cell

195
Q

What is asexual reproduction?

A

A method of reproduction that produces genetically identical cells without the fusion of sex cells

196
Q

What is step one of binary fission?

A

A prokaryotic cell before cellular replication

197
Q

What is step two of binary fission?

A

The circular chromosome is uncoiled and the DNA is replicated. Plasmids also replicate.

198
Q

What is step three of binary fission?

A

The cell goes longer as it prepares to separate into two new cells and the duplicated chromosomes migrate to opposite ends

199
Q

What is step four of binary fission?

A

The cells begins to undergo cytokinesis - the process of separating into two cells - pinching inwards and created a septum (dividing wall).

200
Q

What is step five of binary fission?

A

A new cell wall and membrane are formed down the center of the cell.

201
Q

What is step six of binary fission?

A

Two generically identical cells are formed

202
Q

Give four mains steps of binary fission

A

D - DNA replication
E - Elongation
S - Septum formation
C - Cell division

203
Q

Is cell replication a form of exponential or linear growth?

A

Exponential growth

204
Q

What are the three stages that compose the eukaryotic cell cycle.

A

Interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis

205
Q

Describe interphase

A

Cellular growth and duplication of chromosomes

206
Q

Describe mitosis

A

Separation of sister chromatids and the formation of two nuclei.

207
Q

What are sister chromatids?

A

The two identical halves of a replication chromosome

208
Q

Describe cytokinesis

A

Division of the cytoplasm and formation of two daughter cells.

209
Q

T/F: Interphase is the first and longest stage of the cell cycle

A

True

210
Q

What happens during interphase?

A

The cell synthesizes the necessary DNA, proteins, and organelles required for growth and replication.

211
Q

What are the three sub-stages of interphase?

A
  • G1
  • S
  • G2
212
Q

What does G1 mean?

A

Gap 1

213
Q

What are three things that happen in G1?

A
  • Increasing the volume of its cytosol
  • Synthesizing proteins for DNA replication
  • Replicating its organelles
214
Q

What happens at the end of the G1 phase?

A

Cell either proceeds to the S phase or exits the cell cycle and enters the G0 phase.

215
Q

What does G0 stand for?

A

Gap zero

216
Q

Why do some cells go to the G0 phase?

A

As some cells are not required to replicate rest in the G0 phase.

217
Q

What types of cells attend the G0 phase?

A

Quiescent and terminally differentiated

218
Q

What are quiescent cells?

A

Dormant cells which can re-enter the cell cycle

219
Q

What are terminally differentiated cells?

A

Cells that have fully specialized and no longer replicate

220
Q

Can quiescent cells re-enter the cell cycle?

A

Yes

221
Q

Can terminally differentiated cells re-enter the cell cycle?

A

No

222
Q

What does the S Phase stand for?

A

Synthesis phase

223
Q

What happens during the S phase?

A

The cell replicates its DNA turning one chromosome into two genetically identical sister chromatids.

224
Q

How are sister chromatids held together?

A

By a centromere

225
Q

What is a centromere?

A

The structure which holds two sister chromatids together.

226
Q

Are sister chromatids considered a single chromosome?

A

Yes

227
Q

What are somatic cells?

A

Any cell that is not a reproductive cell.

228
Q

What is ‘diploid’

A

Cells or organisms that have two sets of chromosomes

Diploid = 2n

229
Q

Are somatic cells diploid?

A

Yes

230
Q

What does it mean to be diploid?

A

It contains two sets of paired chromosomes.

231
Q

How many chromosome pairs are in humans?

A

23

232
Q

How many chromosomes will each somatic cell contain?

A

46

233
Q

After the S phase, how many chromosomes will each somatic cell contain?

A

46

234
Q

Diploid cells are also referred to being what?

A

2n

235
Q

What does n refer to in 2n?

A

Number of sets of chromosomes

236
Q

What does G2 stand for?

A

Gap 2

237
Q

What is the final phase of interphase?

A

G2

238
Q

What are two things that are involved with the G2 phase?

A
  • Increasing the volume of cytosol
  • Synthesizing proteins in preparation for mitosis
239
Q

What is the second stage of the eukaryotic cell cycle?

A

Mitosis

240
Q

Overall, what does mitosis involve?

A

The separation of the newly replicated chromosomes into two new nuclei

241
Q

What is the third stage of the eukaryotic cell cycle?

A

Cytokinesis

242
Q

What is the final stage of the eukaryotic cell cycle?

A

Cytokinesis

243
Q

Overall, what happens during cytokinesis?

A

The cell divides into two daughter cells

244
Q

What is a daughter cell?

A

The formation of a new cell following cell replication

245
Q

What are the four sub-stages of mitosis?

A
  • Prophase
  • Metaphase
  • Anaphase
  • Telophase
246
Q

What is chromosome condensation?

A

The shortening and thickening of chromosomes, as DNA is tightly wrapped around histone proteins

247
Q

What are centrioles?

A

Cylindrical structures composed of protein which form spindle fibers during mitosis and meiosis

248
Q

What a spindle fibers?

A

Structures which aid in the movement of chromosomes to either pole of the cell during mitosis and meiosis

249
Q

What is the equator of a cell?

A

The center line between opposite ends of the cell that the chromosomes line up on during metaphase

250
Q

What happens during prophase?

A

Begins with the condensation of chromatin around histones into distinct chromosomes, so that they become visible under a microscope.

The centrioles migrate towards opposite ends of the cell

Spindle fibers begin to form

The nuclear membrane breaks down and the nucleolus disappears.

251
Q

What happens during metaphase?

A

The spindle fibers fully form

Spindle fibers attach to the centromere of each chromosome.

Spindle fibers guide the chromosomes towards the equator of the cell where they line up

252
Q

What happens during anaphase?

A

The spindle fibers contract

The centromere splits

The sister chromatids get pulled to opposite ends of the cell

253
Q

What happens in telophase?

A

The chromosomes densely pack together at the poles of the cell

Two identical nuclei are produced

Spindle fibers disintegrate

Chromosomes decondense

254
Q

Cytokinesis occurs after what?

A

Mitosis

255
Q

What happens in cytokinesis

A

Cytoplasm divides

Organelles distribute evenly

Separation into two daughter cells

256
Q

What do animals use for cytokinesis?

A

Cleavage furrow

257
Q

What do plants use for cytokinesis?

A

Cell plate

258
Q

What are the 3 checkpoints for regulation in the cell cycle?

A
  • G1 checkpoint
  • G2 checkpoint
  • Metaphase checkpoint
259
Q

What does the G1 checkpoint do?

A

Check cell growth

Check DNA synthesis

Checks if DNA has been damaged

260
Q

What does the G2 checkpoint do?

A

Ensure DNA has replicated properly

Checks if cell has enough resources to begin mitosis

261
Q

What does the metaphase checkpoint do?

A

Checks formation of spindle fibers

Checks if chromosomes are in correct position

Checks if cell can proceed to anaphase

262
Q

What is apoptosis?

A

The natural and controlled death of cells

263
Q

How many cells is our body made up of?

A

30 - 40 trillion cells

264
Q

What triggers apoptosis?

A
  • when a cell begins to malfunction
  • a cell becomes damaged
  • a cell becomes unnecessary
265
Q

What are the two pathways of apoptosis?

A
  • Mitochondrial pathway
  • Death receptor pathway
266
Q

Apoptosis is activated by what

A

Caspase enzymes

267
Q

Mitochondrial pathway steps

A
  1. Mitochondria detect damage
  2. Mitochondria release cytochrome c into the cytosol
  3. Cytochrome c binds with cytosolic proteins
  4. Apoptosome is formed
  5. Caspase enzyme is activated
268
Q

Death receptor pathway steps

A
  1. Death signaling molecules can be recognized by death receptor proteins on the surface of cells
  2. Death signaling molecules bind to death signaling proteins
  3. Caspase enzyme is activated
269
Q

What is another way cells can die (not apoptosis)

A

Necrosis

270
Q

Is necrosis regulated or un-regulated?

A

Un-regulated

271
Q

Describe necrosis

A

Cells swell, burst, and release contents into surrounding environment.

272
Q

What can necrosis lead to?

A

Inflammation and damage to nearby cells

273
Q

What are the brief stages after caspase enzyme activation in apoptosis?

A
  1. Activation of caspase
  2. Digestion of cell contents
  3. Cell shrinks
  4. Membrane blebbing and breakage
274
Q

Describe what happens when the caspase enzyme is activated.

A

Cytochrome C is released

275
Q

What happens during the stage of digestion of cell contents during apoptosis?

A

Break down of organelles

276
Q

What happens during the stage the cell shrinks during apoptosis?

A

The cell and nucleus shrink, intracellular material is broken down

277
Q

What happens when the cell blebbs in step four of apoptosis?

A
  • Cytoskeleton is digested
  • Structural integrity of cell weakened
  • Membrane detaches from cell
  • Membrane enclosed vesicles known as apoptotic bodies are created an contain broken down intracellular material.
278
Q

What happens after apoptosis?

A

Phagocytes engulf and digest the apoptotic bodies via phagocytosis

279
Q

What can happen when the cell cycle is disrupted or insufficient?

A

Damaged cells can replicate exponentially leading to the development of tumors and cancer

280
Q

What two categories can tumors be broken down into?

A

Benign tumors

Malignant tumors

281
Q

What is the difference between malignant tumors and benign tumors?

A

Malignant tumors can spread to other parts of the body whilst benign largely cannot.

282
Q

Are benign tumors considered cancerous?

A

No

283
Q

Are malignant tumors concerous?

A

Yes

284
Q

Why are malignant tumors cancerous?

A

Because they can spread

285
Q

What are the five characteristics that both benign and malignant tumors have?

A
  • Self sufficiency
  • Antigrowth deactivation
  • Increased survival
  • Blood supply formation
  • Tissue invasion and metastasis
286
Q

Why is apoptosis so important?

A

Necessary for controlling total cell numbers in the body

To remove diseased and damaged cells

287
Q

What signals does the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis require?

A

Intracellular signals

288
Q

What signals does the death receptor pathway of apoptosis require?

A

Extracellular signals

289
Q

A decrease in apoptosis can result in what?

A

Cancer

290
Q

What are the two requirements to be classified as a stem cell?

A
  • To be unspecialized
  • To be capable of self-renewal
291
Q

What does self-renewal mean?

A

To produce both a differentiated cell and a copy of themselves when they replicate

292
Q

What does the potency of a cell measure?

A

Its capacity to differentiate into different cell types

293
Q

As stem cells are not all equal, how are they categorized?

A

Through potency

294
Q

If a stem cell can differentiate into more cell types, the greater its……(fill in word)

A

Potency

295
Q

What are the 3 main types of stem cells?

A
  • Totipotent
  • Pluripotent
  • Multipotent
296
Q

What is a totipotent stem cell?

A

Stem cells that can differentiate into any cell type

297
Q

What is a pluripotent stem cell?

A

Stem cells that can differentiate into multiple cell types

298
Q

What is a multipotent stem cell?

A

Stem cells that can differentiate into a limited number of specialized cell types belonging to a specific tissue or organ.

299
Q

A type of totipotent cell

A

Zygote

300
Q

A type of pluripotent cell

A

Blastocyst

301
Q

Three types of multipotent cells

A

Ectoderm, Mesoderm, Endoderm

302
Q

Types of ectoderm

A

Neuron, skin cell, pigment cell

303
Q

Types of mesoderm

A

Skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, red blood cells, bone cells

304
Q

Types of endoderm

A

Stomach cells, liver cells, pancreatic cells

305
Q

Apoptosis is controlled or uncontrolled?

A

Controlled

306
Q

Is necrosis controlled or uncontrolled?

A

Uncontrolled

Biology - Unit 1 (20 decks)

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