Exam Revision - From Notes Flashcards
1
Q
The dependent variable is the variable we __________
A
measure
2
Q
The independent variable is the variable we __________
A
change
3
Q
A controlled variable is also known as the
A
Constant variable
4
Q
Types of sampling
A
- Systematic sampling
- Random sampling
- Stratified sampling
- Judgement sampling
- Convenience sampling
5
Q
Types of errors
A
- Personal error
- Systematic error
- Random error
6
Q
Primary data is when you’re collecting _________ data
A
your
7
Q
Raw data vs Transformed data
A
Raw data is as you write the results down in your logbook.
Transformed data is when you start graphing it or presenting it in tables.
8
Q
Two types of variables
A
- Numerical
- Categorical
9
Q
Two types of numerical data
A
- Discrete
- Continuous
10
Q
Two types of categorical data
A
- Ordinal data
- Nominal data
11
Q
Bar graphs are typically used to display ____________ data
A
Categorical and discrete
12
Q
Line graphs and scatter plots display __________________ data
A
Continuous
13
Q
A question to assess precision
A
are the results within the replicate treatments similar or different?
14
Q
A question to assess accuracy
A
Are the recorded values similar or different from the true values?
15
Q
A question to assess outliers
A
Are there any data points that stand out or do not follow the pattern?
16
Q
Three approaches to bioethics
A
consequence based approach, rule/duty based approach, and virtues-based approach.
17
Q
What is the aim of a consequence-based approach?
A
to maximise positive outcomes whilst minimising negative effects.
18
Q
What is the aim of a rules/duty based approach?
A
To follow a set of rules and responsibilities, with less regard of the consequences as a result.
19
Q
What is the aim of a virtues-based approach?
A
To emphasise the moral nature of the individual, and provide guidance as to the behaviours a morally good person would hope to achieve.
20
Q
The five ethical concepts in Biology
A
integrity, justice, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and respect.
21
Q
Integrity is the commitment to _____________-
A
Knowledge
22
Q
Justice is the commitment to ________________
A
Fairness
23
Q
Beneficence is the commitment to ____________
A
Maximising benefits
24
Q
Nonmaleficence is the commitment to ____________________
A
Minimising harm
25
Respect is the commitment to __________________
Consideration
26
What are 8 qualities that all living things possess?
Movement
Respiration
Sensitivity
Growth
Reproduction
Equilibrium
Excretion
Nutrition.
27
What does cell theory state?
1. All living things are made up of cells.
2. Cells are the smallest and most basic units of life.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
28
What are the Six Kingdoms of life
Animalia, Archaea, Bacteria, Fungi, Plantae, and Protista
29
How do eukaryotic cells replicate?
Mitosis and meiosis
30
How do prokaryotic cells replicate?
binary fission
31
Differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles whilst prokaryotes do not
Eukaryotic cells have multiple linear strands of DNA packaged in chromosomes in the nucleus whilst prokaryotes have one circular chromosome and some additional plasmids.
32
What are the three domains of life?
- Archaea
- Bacteria
- Eukarya
33
What domains are prokaryotic, and which is eukaryotic?
Prokaryotic: Archaea and bacteria
Eukaryotes: Eukarya
34
What kingdoms can Eukarya be divided into?
Animalia, Fungi, Plantae, and Protista.
35
What is an organelle?
A cellular structure that performs specific functions
36
What is cytosol? What is cytoplasm?
Cytoplasm is everything inside the cell except the nucleus, whilst the cytosol is the internal liquid.
37
What does the nucleus store?
Genetic material
38
The nucleus is surrounded by a _______________________
double membrane
39
What does the nucleolus produce?
Ribosomes
40
What are ribosomes made up of?
Ribosomal RNA
41
Ribosomal RNA can be abbreviated to?
rRNA
42
Where are two places ribosomes can be found in the cell?
They can float freely in the cytoplasm or are attached to the rough ER
43
Ribosomes assemble the building blocks to build _______________
proteins
44
The Rough ER is coated with ___________________
ribosomes
45
What does the Rough ER do?
It synthesises and modifies proteins
46
Smooth ER are responsible for the production of _______________
lipids
47
The Golgi Apparatus is also known as the _________________
Golgi body
48
The Golgi Apparatus does what?
Packages and modifies proteins readying them for cell use or export
49
Lysosomes contain ________________________
Digestive enzymes
50
What do lysosomes do?
Break down cell waste and toxins.
51
What does the Mitochondria do?
the site of aerobic respiration cellular respiration and produces ATP.
52
Chloroplasts are the site of ___________________
photosynthesis
53
Vacuole is used for ________
storage
54
The vacuole helps maintain _____________ in ___________ cells.
structure, plant
55
What type of cells are the cell wall found?
Plant, bacterial, and fungal cells
56
Which organelles are not membrane bound?
Ribosomes, cell wall, and cytoskeleton
57
The folds of the inner membrane of the mitochondria are known as the
cristae
58
The space inside the inner membrane is known as the
Mitochondrial matrix
59
The word formula for aerobic cellular respiration is
glucose + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water + energy.
60
The chemical formula for aerobic cellular respiration is
C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2+ 6H2O + 36 ATP
61
What kind of cells can chloroplasts be found in?
Plant and algae cells
62
The chemical formula for photosynthesis is
6CO2 + 6H2O = C6H12O6 + 6O2
63
The word formula for photosynthesis is
Carbon Dioxide + Water = Glucose + Oxygen
64
What are some of the key differences between plant and animal cells.
The key differences between animal and plant cells is that plant cells have a cell wall whilst animal cells do not, chloroplasts are present in plant cells but not in animal cells, and vacuoles in animal cells are small and there can be many or none whilst plant cells tend to have one large vacuole.
65
What are the benefits of having small cells?
(1) The exchange of materials with the extracellular environment can occur efficiently (2) Distances to travel within the cell are smaller, so intracellular transport is faster.
66
What does the plasma membrane separate?
the intracellular environment to the extracellular environment
67
The main component of the phospholipid bilayer are
Phospholipids
68
What is the name of the arrangement of phospholipids?
The phospholipid bilayer
69
What are the two components of phospholipids
1. Phosphate head
2. Fatty acid tails
70
What is the phosphate head made up of?
Glycerol and phosphate group
71
What is the charge of the phosphate head?
Negatively charged
72
Is the phosphate head hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
Hydrophilic
73
Is the phosphate head polar or non polar?
Polar
74
What are the two fatty acid tails made up of?
Chains of Carbon and Hydrogen
75
What is the charge of the two fatty acid tails?
Uncharged
76
Are the two fatty acid tails hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
Hydrophobic
77
Are the two fatty acid tails polar or non polar?
Non polar
78
As phospholipids have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts they are ____________________ molecules
amphipathic
79
What are the names of the three types of proteins embedded in the plasma membrane?
- Integral proteins
- Transmembrane proteins
- Peripheral proteins
80
What are integral proteins?
proteins that are a permanent part of the membrane
81
What are transmembrane proteins?
integral proteins that span the entire bilayer
82
What are peripheral proteins?
are temporarily attached to the plasma membrane
83
What are the four functions/purposes of proteins in the plasma membrane?
- Transport
- Catalysis
- Communication
- Adhesion
84
Where is cholesterol in the plasma membrane?
Between the fatty acid tails
85
What are the two types of carbohydrates present in the membrane?
- Glycolipids
- Glycoproteins
86
What are glycolipids
Carbohydrates rooted to lipids
87
What are glycoproteins?
Carbohydrates rooted to proteins
88
What three functions do carbohydrates perform?
cell-cell communication, signaling, and adhesion
89
What does cholesterol regulate in the plasma membrane?
Fluidity
90
What 2 things does the fluid mosaic model dictate?
1) molecules that make up the membrane are not held static in one place and 2) many different types of molecules are embedded in the plasma membrane.
91
Active transport requires ________________
energy
92
What are the two types of active transport
- Protein mediated transport (or just "Active Transport")
- Bulk transport
93
What are the two requirements for when a molecule needs to be transported against its concentration gradient?
1. Energy
2. Membrane proteins
94
How is bulk transport different from protein mediated transport?
Protein-mediated transport uses membrane proteins whilst bulk transport uses vesicles
95
What are the three steps of protein mediated transport?
1. Binding
2. Conformational change
3. Release
96
What reaction occurs during conformational change to release energy?
ATP —> ADP + P
97
What are two types of bulk transport?
- Endocytosis
- Exocytosis
98
What is the difference between endocytosis and exocytosis?
Exocytosis is for molecules exiting the cell and endocytosis is for molecules entering the cell.
99
Steps of exocytosis
1. Vesicular transport
2. Fusion
3. Release
100
Steps of endocytosis
1. Fold
2. Trap
3. Bud
101
What is phagocytosis?
The endocytosis of solid materials - ‘cell eating’
102
What is pinocytosis?
The endocytosis of liquid materials - ‘cell drinking’
103
What are the purposes of cell replication?
1) Growth and development, 2) Maintenance and repair, 3) Reproduction
104
Prokaryotes replicate ex.......
ponentially
105
What is the process called through which prokaryotes replicate?
Binary fission
106
Binary fission is a form of ________________ reproduction
asexual
107
Steps of binary fission
1. DNA replication
2. Elongation
2. Septum formation
4. Cell division
108
What are the three stages of the eukaryotic cell cycle?
Interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis
109
What is the longest stage of eukaryotic cell division?
Interphase
110
Three stages of interphase
1. G1
2. S
3. G2
111
What occurs during G1?
the volume of cytosol increases, proteins get synthesised, and organelles replicate
112
What occurs during the S phase?
the cell replicates its DNA by creating sister chromatids.
Sister chromatids are held together by a centromere
113
Why do cells go to the G0 stage?
As they are no longer required to replicate
114
What are the two types of cells that go to G0?
- Quiescent cells
- Terminally differentiated cells
115
Can quiescent cells and/or terminally differentiated cells re-enter the cell cycle?
Quiescent cells can re-enter
Terminally differentiated cells cannot
116
What happens in G2?
there is an increase in the volume of cytosol, and protein synthesis occurs.
117
What are the four stages of mitosis?
- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase
118
What occurs during prophase?
chromosomes condense, spindle fibres form, centrioles migrate to the poles of the cell, the nuclear membrane breaks down, and the nucleolus disappears.
119
What occurs during metaphase?
spindle fibres fully form, and chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell.
120
What occurs during anaphase?
the chromatids go to opposite ends of the cell.
121
What occurs during telophase?
Spindle fibres disintegrate, chromosomes decondense, nuclear membrane is formed, and two genetically identical nuclei get produced.
122
What occurs during cytokinesis?
cytoplasm divides and organelles evenly distribute themselves.
123
What is different between how animal and plant cells undergo cytokinesis?
In animal cells, during cytokinesis, a cleavage furrow develops which pinches the cell in half whilst in plant cells, a cell plate forms at the equator before the cell splits in two.
124
How many checkpoints has the cell cycle got?
3
125
What are the 3 checkpoints of the eukaryotic cell cycle?
- G1 checkpoint
- G2 checkpoint
- Metaphase checkpoint
126
What does the G1 checkpoint verify?
the cell has grown to the correct size, and has synthesised enough protein for DNA replication.
127
What does the G2 checkpoint verify?
The G2 checkpoint ensures that DNA has been replicated properly and that the cell has enough resources for mitosis
128
What does the metaphase checkpoint verify?
the cell checks the formation of the spindle fibres and if the chromosomes are in the right location.
129
What is apoptosis?
The controlled and systematic death of cells, programmed cell death
130
What are the two pathways of apoptosis?
- Mitochondrial pathway
- Death receptor pathway
131
Steps of the mitochondrial pathway
1. Mitochondria detect cell malfunction
2. Mitochondria release cytochrome c into the cytosol
3. Caspase enzyme activated
4. Apoptosis begins
132
Steps of the death receptor pathway
1. Death receptor proteins recognise death signalling molecules
2. molecules bind with the receptor causing the initiation of the caspase enzyme
3. apoptosis is initiated
133
What is necrosis?
the unregulated and uncontrolled death of cells which causes cells to swell and burst.
134
What are the consequences to necrosis?
may lead to inflammation and damage to nearby cells and tissues.
135
Steps of apoptosis
1. Activate of caspase enzyme
2. digestion of cell contents, 3. cell shrinkage,
4. membrane blebbing.
136
What occurs after apoptosis?
phagocytosis
137
What happens if the cell cycle is disrupted?
damaged cells will replicate exponentially leading to the development of cancer and tumours
138
What are the two categories of tumours?
benign tumours and malignant tumours
139
What is the difference between benign tumours and malignant tumours?
malignant tumours can invade nearby tissue and enter the blood spread and spread
140
Are benign or malignant tumours cancerous?
Malignant = cancerous
Benign = not cancerous
141
What are stem cells?
undifferentiated cells with the capacity to differentiate into specialised cells with a particular function.
142
What are two things a cell must have to be considered a stem cell?
1) be unspecialised
2) be capable of self-renewal
143
When a stem cell reproduces it produces.....
1) differentiated cell
2) another stem cell
144
What are totipotent cells?
Totipotent stem cells are stem cells with the greatest potency. They can differentiate into any stem cell type
145
What are pluripotent cells?
Pluripotent stem cells can differentiate into multiple cell types. They are less potent than totipotent cells but have a greater potency than multipotent cells
146
What are multipotent cells?
Multipotent cells can differentiate into a limited number of specialised cell types belonging to a specific organ or tissue. They are less potent than pluripotent cells but more potent than unipotent oligopotent cells.
147
What does ectoderm differentiate into?
neurons, skin cells, and pigment cells
148
What does mesoderm differentiate into?
skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, red blood cells, and bone cells.
149
What does endoderm differentiate into?
stomach cells, pancreatic cells, and liver cells
150
A zygote is totipotent/pluripotent/multipotent?
totipotent
151
A blastocyst is totipotent/pluripotent/multipotent
pluripotent
152
Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are totipotent/pluripotent/multipotent
Multipotent
153
What are the five different levels of complexity?
1. Cells
2. Tissues
3. Organs
4. Systems
5. Organisms
154
The two organ systems of vascular plants are
- Root system
- Shoot system
155
Four major tissue types are:
epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
156
Name the three types of muscle tissue. State if they are voluntary or involuntary
Skeletal muscle tissue (voluntary control), cardiac muscle tissue (involuntary control), and smooth muscle tissue (involuntary control).
157
Two types of vascular tissue
Xylem and phloem
158
Xylem tissue
- One way flow
- Water and minerals
159
Phloem tissue
- Two way flow
- Water and food
160
What are the stomata?
are in the leaves and control evaporation
161
What are mesophyll?
the ground tissue of the leaf specialised for photosynthesis
162
Four ways in which water moves from roots to leaves in Xylem vessels:
1) Osmosis, 2) Adhesion, 3) Transpiration, 4) Cohesion
163
What is transpiration?
the pressure of evaporation to raise water up from the roots towards the plant.
164
What does the digestive system do?
The digestive system breaks down food
165
Two methods of food digestion
Physical/mechanical digestion and chemical digestion
166
Four steps of digestion
ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination/egestion
167
What does the oral cavity do?
beginning of the digestive system and the site of ingestion. Teeth mechanically break down food and saliva chemically break down others.
168
What do the salivary glands do?
oroduce saliva into the mouth and oesophagus
169
What does the oesophagus do?
A hollow tube connecting the oral cavity to the stomach in which food flows down after being swallowed. The movement of food is aided by muscular contractions: peristalsis.
170
What does the stomach do?
Food is churned by muscular movements, and digestive juices break down food. Peristalsis also occurs here and digested food leaves the stomach as chyme
171
What are the 3 roles of the liver?
1. The site of bile production 2. filtration of blood,
3. detoxifying chemicals.
172
What does the gallbladder do?
Bile is stored here before being released into the small intestine
173
What does the pancreas do?
Produces digestive enzymes, and regulates blood sugar levels
174
What does the small intestine do?
Absorb nutrients and deliver them to the circulatory system and continue breaking down food
175
What are the three sections of the small intestine?
duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum
176
How is the small intestine adapted for absorption?
as villi and microvilli provide a very large surface area
177
What does the large intestine do?
Final absorption of water, minerals, and vitamins
178
Three sections of the Large Intestine
Cecum, Colon, and Rectum
179
What does the rectum do?
Area of the large intestine that stores faeces
180
What does the anus do?
The end of the digestive tract, faeces are expelled
181
What is a tissue and how does it differ between organs?
A tissue is a group of similar cells that work together. Each organ has its own unique combination of tissues.
182
What are the 2 systems of a plant?
Plants have root and shoot systems. The root system is underground, and the shoot system is aboveground.
183
What do the xylem and phloem transport and in what direction?
Xylem transports water and minerals upward, while phloem transports food (like sugars) both upward and downward.
184
What are the 2 pathways of water and nutrient absorption in a plant?
Plants have two pathways for water and nutrient absorption: the extracellular pathway (through spaces outside cells) and the cytoplasmic pathway (through the cell cytoplasm).
185
What is the process of water evaporating from leaves called?
Transpiration
186
What controls the stoma?
Guard cells
187
What is the main role of the digestive system?
The main role of the digestive system is to break down food into smaller pieces and absorb nutrients
188
What is the difference between chemical and physical digestion?
Chemical digestion involves the breakdown of food using enzymes and acids, while physical digestion involves the mechanical breakdown of food through actions like chewing and churning.
189
What is the pathway of food? (Ingestion->Elimination)
The pathway of food starts with ingestion (eating), followed by digestion in the stomach and small intestine, absorption of nutrients in the small intestine, and elimination of waste through the large intestine and rectum.
190
What does the liver do?
The liver performs various functions, including filtering toxins from the blood, producing bile to aid in fat digestion, storing nutrients, and regulating blood sugar levels.
191
What is the pancreas responsible for?
The pancreas produces enzymes that help break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in the small intestine. It also produces insulin and glucagon, which are involved in regulating blood sugar levels.
192
Name the types of digestive enzymes and what they break down.
Some types of digestive enzymes include amylase (breaks down carbohydrates), protease (breaks down proteins), and lipase (breaks down fats).
193
What does the large intestine do?
The large intestine absorbs water and electrolytes from undigested food, forming feces and facilitating the elimination of waste from the body.
194
Why does the digestive tracts length differ from species to species?
Digestive tract length varies across species based on their diets. Plant-eating animals tend to have longer digestive tracts to break down complex plant materials, while meat-eating animals have shorter tracts as meat is easier to digest. The length is adapted to suit the specific dietary needs of each species.
195
What does the excretory system do?
The excretory system helps our body get rid of waste and toxins.
196
How does this regulate the osmolality of the body? (excretory system)
The excretory system helps maintain the right balance of water and salts in our body. It regulates the osmolality by adjusting the amount of water and salts we keep or get rid of.
197
How is excess protein excreted?
When there is too much protein, our body breaks it down and removes the waste products in urine.
198
What is the difference between ureter and urethra?
The ureter carries urine from the kidneys to the bladder, while the urethra carries urine out of the body.
199
What does the nephron do?
The nephron is a tiny part of the kidney that helps filter waste and maintain the right balance of substances in our body.
200
How does the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule operate?
The glomerulus is like a filter in the kidney that catches waste and small molecules from the blood. The Bowman's capsule collects the filtered waste and sends it on its way to become urine.
201
Describe the overall process of the nephron.
In the nephron, blood enters the glomerulus, where waste products are filtered. Then it goes through the tubules where important substances are reabsorbed into the bloodstream. Finally, the remains become urine
202
How is water reabsorbed? (excretory system)
Osmosis
203
What does ADH and renin do and how?
ADH tells the kidneys to absorb more water by reducing urine production.
Renin is released by the kidneys when blood pressure is too low and triggers reactions.
204
What does the endocrine system do?
The endocrine system releases hormones that help control and regulate different functions in our body.
205
How is the nervous system different from the endocrine system?
Endocrine system uses hormones, nervous system uses electrical signals
206
How do hormones only affect specific cells?
It only binds to cells with that specific receptor
207
What is an endocrine gland vs exocrine gland?
An endocrine gland releases hormones directly into the bloodstream, while an exocrine gland releases substances
208
List 3 endocrine glands and what they secrete.
Pituitary gland: Growth hormone
Thyroid gland: Thyroid hormones
Adrenal glands: Adrenaline
209
What is one hormone the hypothalamus secretes and how does it work?
Oxytocin - helps with childbirth and bonding
210
What response does adrenaline stimulate?
Increases heart rate, energy availability, and blood pressure
211
How is water loss/transpiration regulated in plant cells?
Through the opening and closing for the stomata
212
What happens if guard cells become turgid?
Stomata open
213
What are the key tissues in vascular plants?
Xylem and Phloem
214
How is water taken up by plants?
Plants take up water through their roots. Special structures called root hairs absorb water from the soil and it travels through the root system.
215
How does water move through plants?
Water moves through plants from the roots to the leaves through a process called transpiration. It is pulled up through the xylem tubes, creating a continuous flow of water and nutrients.
216
How is water lost from plants?
Water is lost from plants through small openings called stomata
217
What is homeostasis?
Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.
218
What are some parameters that affect the functioning of cells?
- Temperature
- pH
219
Describe the stimulus response model
The stimulus-response model describes how organisms respond to changes in their environment. It involves several components:
Stimulus: A change in the environment that triggers a response.
Receptor: A structure or cell that detects the stimulus.
Modulator: The brain or control center that assesses the information and determines the appropriate response.
Effector: The part of the organism that carries out the response.
Response: The action or change that occurs as a result of the stimulus.
220
Describe positive feedback systems
In a positive feedback system, the response amplifies or reinforces the original stimulus
221
Describe negative feedback systems
In a negative feedback system, the response opposes the initial change, bringing the body back to its normal state. It helps maintain stability and balance in the body.
222
Heat transfer occurs in the body via four methods:
- Conduction
- Convection
- Evaporation
- Radiation
223
How does heat transfer occur in conduction?
Through physical contact with another object
224
How does heat transfer occur under convection?
Movement of liquid or a gas
225
How does heat transfer occur under evaporation?
Conversion of liquid water into gas
226
How does heat transfer occur under radiation?
Electromagnetic waves
227
What is the receptor for detecting changes in temperature?
Thermoreceptors
228
What is the receptor that detects painful stimuli?
Nociceptors
229
What is the receptor that detects changes in pressure
Baroreceptors
230
What is the receptor that detects changes in chemical concentration?
Chemoreceptors
231
What is the receptor that detects changes in light?
Photoreceptors
232
Endotherms generate most of their heat ________________
internally
233
Ectotherms generate most of their heat _______________________
from environmental sources
234
Negative feedback loop of heat regulation.
Stimulus - change in internal/external temperature
Receptor - Thermoreceptors
Modulator - Hypothalamus
Effector - Cells and tissues
Response - Change in temperature
235
Where do we get glucose from?
Carbohydrates
236
Steps of glucose from food
1. The digestive system breaks down the glucose from food into a variety of enzymes
2. Glucose is absorbed by the small intestine
3. Glucose is released into the bloodstream
4. Glucose travels around the body to different cells
5. Once in cells, respiration takes place
6. ATP is produced
237
What is the name of the process that converts glucagon into glucose
Glycogenolysis
238
What does glucose travel in across the body?
Blood plasma
239
Q
What happens when a person has too much Glucose (name)
hyperglycaemic
240
What happens when a person has too little Glucose (name)
hypoglycaemic
241
How does our body maintain the right level of glucose?
Homeostasis
242
Stimulus in homeostasis of glucose
Blood glucose levels
243
Receptor in homeostasis of glucose
The pancreas (Islets of
Langerhans)
244
Modulator in homeostasis of glucose
The pancreas (Islets of Langerhans)
245
Response of homeostasis of glucose
increase or
decrease in
blood sugar
levels
246
When an islet of Langerhans detects a blood glucose level above around 5 mmol/L, what happens?
Beta cells release insulin
247
Two different pathways of insulin (glucose homeostasis)
Skeletal muscle and fat cells absorb more glucose from the blood
Liver cells are stimulated to convert more glucose into glycogen
248
Two different effectors used to decrease glucose levels
Liver cells
Skeletal, muscle, and fat cells
249
Response of liver cells effector (homeostasis of glucose)
increased
conversion
of glucose to
glycogen
250
Response of “Skeletal, muscle, and fat cells” effector (homeostasis of glucose)
insertion of glucose
transporters into
cell membrane
251
List what homeostasis does when blood sugar is too low
Stimulus: Blood glucose levels
Receptor: Islets of
Langerhans
Moderator: islets of Langerhans
Effector: Liver cells
Response: Breakdown of glycogen into glucose, released into the blood stream
252
What is homeostasis?
A process that maintains the internal environment of an organism so that systems can function appropriately
253
5 things that effect function of cells
1. Temperature
2. pH acidity level
3. Blood sugar levels
4. Sodium and Potassium concentration
5. Fluid balance
254
What is the stimulus-response model?
Outlines how the changes in external and internal environments can influence an organisms functions
255
The 5 components of the stimulus-response model
1. Stimulus
2. Receptor
3. Modulator
4. Effecter
5. Response
256
Describe the Stimulus component of the stimulus-response model
The change in the internal and/or external environment of the organism
257
Describe the Receptor component of the stimulus-response model
The receptor detects the stimulus and transfers its knowledge to the Modulator
258
Describe the Modulator component of the stimulus-response model
Information detected via the receptors are sent to the Modulator. The Modulator compares this information to the ideal state for the organism and then releases molecules to alter the functioning of an effector
259
Describe the Effecter component of the stimulus-response mode
A molecule, cell, or hormone that responds to the signal of the Modulator and produces a response
260
Describe the Response component of the stimulus-response model
The Effecter initiates the response. The response can be any change to react to the stimulus.
261
Thermoreceptors
Detect changes in temperature
262
Nociceptors
Detect painful stimuli
263
Baroreceptors
Detect changes in pressure
264
Chemoreceptors
Detect changes in chemical concentration
265
Photoreceptors
Detect changes in light
266
When does the positive feedback system occur?
When the response increases the initial stimulus
267
When does the negative feedback system occur?
When the response counters the stimulus
268
Three steps of cellular signaling
1. Reception
2. Transduction
3. Response
269
Describe the reception part of cellular signalling
The detection of the stimulus and then converting this into an electrical, chemical, or mechanical signal
270
Describe the Transduction part of cellular signalling
The transmission of signal during cellular signaling. Can involve sending a signal between organisms, across the body, to a neighboring cell, or back to the original receptor cell
271
Describe the Response part of cellular signalling
The change in the function of the target cell, organ, or organism
272
The four methods of heat transfer
1 - Conduction
2 - Convection
3 - Evaporation
4 - Radiation
273
Explain conduction
The transfer of heat through physical contact
274
Explain convection
Transfer heat via movement of a liquid or gas between areas of different temperature
275
Explain evaporation
The loss of heat through the conversion of water from liquid into gas form.
276
Explain radiation
The transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves
277
How does thermal regulation occur?
Through a negative feedback stimulus-response system
278
In terms of thermoregulation, species can be divided into two different groups:
Endotherms
Ectotherms
279
Endotherms are also known as
Warm blooded species
280
How do endotherms generate the majority of their heat:
Through metabolic processes
281
Ectotherms are also known as
Cold blooded species
282
How do ectotherms generate the majority of their heat:
Through environmental sources
283
In the case of thermoregulation, the Modulator is:
Hypothalamus
284
What is the preferred core body temperature of the body?
37 degrees celcius
285
Effecters of responses in thermoregulation when it is too hot (5)
Effector - Sweat glands
Response - Sweating
Effector - Small blood vessels in skin
Response - Dilation of arterioles
Effector - Cerebral cortex
Response - Change in behavior
Effector - Arrector pili muscles
Response - Flattening of hair
Effector - Cells
Response - Decrease in metabolic rate
285
Effecters of responses in thermoregulation when it is too hot (5)
Effector - Sweat glands
Response - Sweating
Effector - Small blood vessels in skin
Response - Dilation of arterioles
Effector - Cerebral cortex
Response - Change in behavior
Effector - Arrector pili muscles
Response - Flattening of hair
Effector - Cells
Response - Decrease in metabolic rate
286
Effecters and responses in thermoregulation when it is too cool (6)
Effector - Skeletal muscles
Response - Shivering
Effector - Small blood vessels in skin
Response - Constriction of arterioles
Effector - Cerebral cortex
Response - Change in regulation
Effector - Arrector pili muscles
Response - Lifting of hair
Effector - Cells
Response - Increase in metabolic rate
Effector - Brown fat
Response - Burning of triglycerides
287
Stimulus in thermoregulation
change in
internal body
and/or
environmental
temperature
288
Receptor in thermoregulation
Thermoreceptor
289
Modulator in thermoregulation
Hypothalamus
290
Effector in thermoregulation
Variety of cells and tissues
291
Response in thermoregulation
change that
alters heat
transfer in body
292
Water is regulated through a process called ...................
osmoregulation
293
Stimulus in osmoregulation
Change in water volume
294
Receptors in osmoregulation
- Baroreceptors
- Osmoreceptors
295
Modulators in osmoregulation
- Cells in kidney
- The hypothalamus and pituitary gland
296
Effectors in osmoregulation
- In hypothalamus
- Cells in distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
297
Response in osmoregulation
Altercation of reabsorption of water
298
Name a malfunction in homeostasis.
How does this malfunction effect the homeostatic mechanisms of the body?
Type 1 diabetes is a malfunction in homeostasis. In this condition, the body's immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. As a result, the body lacks insulin, which disrupts the normal homeostatic mechanisms responsible for regulating blood sugar levels
299
What is the basic structural feature of all life on Earth?
Cells
300
What are prokaryotic cells?
Prokaryotic cells are simple cells that lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. They are typically smaller and less complex compared to eukaryotic cells.
301
What are eukaryotic cells?
Eukaryotic cells are more complex cells that contain a nucleus and various membrane-bound organelles. They are larger and have a more organized internal structure compared to prokaryotic cells.
302
What are the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
Prokaryotic cells are smaller, simpler cells without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells are larger, more complex cells with a nucleus and various membrane-bound organelles.
303
What is surface area to volume ratio?
Surface area to volume ratio compares the object's surface area to its volume.
304
How does SA: V impact cell size?
The surface area to volume ratio (SA:V) affects cell size by determining the efficiency of nutrient exchange and waste removal. Cells aim to maintain an optimal size to ensure sufficient surface area for these processes to occur effectively.
305
How does SA:V influence the rate of diffusion?
Higher surface area to volume ratio (SA:V) speeds up diffusion, while lower SA:V ratio slows it down.
306
What is the difference between plant and animal cells?
Plant cells have a cell wall and chloroplasts, while animal cells do not possess a cell wall and lack chloroplasts.
307
What are the key organelles for both plant and animal cells?
The key organelles in plant and animal cells include the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes.
308
What do mitochondria do in plant and animal cells
Mitochondria are responsible for producing energy in both plant and animal cells through a process called cellular respiration. They convert nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the primary energy source for cellular activities.
309
What do chloroplasts do in plant cells?
Chloroplasts are responsible for photosynthesis in plant cells.
310
What is the structure of the plasma membrane?
The plasma membrane has a phospholipid bilayer structure. It consists of two layers of phospholipid molecules, with hydrophilic (water-loving) heads facing outward and hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails facing inward. Embedded within the phospholipid bilayer are various proteins that have different functions, such as transport, communication, and cell adhesion.
311
What is facilitated diffusion?
Facilitated diffusion is the passive transport of specific molecules across the cell membrane using transport proteins, without requiring energy.
312
What is active transport?
Active transport is the energy-requiring process by which molecules or ions are transported against their concentration gradient across the cell membrane.
313
What is the difference between hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances?
Hydrophilic substances are attracted to water and have an affinity for it, while hydrophobic substances repel water and do not easily mix or dissolve in it.
314
What is osmosis?
Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.
315
Describe the steps of binary fission?
DNA Replication
Elongation
Septum formation
Cell Division
316
Why is binary fission asexual reproduction?
Binary fission is considered a form of asexual reproduction because it involves the division of a single parent cell into two daughter cells, without the involvement of gametes or the fusion of genetic material from two different individuals.
317
What is apoptosis?
Programmed cell death
318
What role do malfunctions in apoptosis play in the development of cancer?
Malfunctions in apoptosis can disrupt the normal process of eliminating damaged or abnormal cells, leading to the accumulation of such cells and the development of cancer.
319
What are distinguishing characteristics of cancer cells?
Distinguishing characteristics of cancer cells include uncontrolled and abnormal cell growth, evasion of cell death mechanisms, ability to invade surrounding tissues, potential to metastasize (spread to other parts of the body), and genetic instability.
320
What are the properties of stem cells which enable cell and tissue renewal?
The properties of stem cells that enable cell and tissue renewal include self-renewal (the ability to divide and generate identical copies of themselves) and differentiation (the potential to develop into specialized cell types in the body).
321
How do stem cells facilitate cell differentiation and specialization?
Stem cells facilitate cell differentiation and specialization by dividing into one stem cell and one specialized cell, allowing for the generation of different cell types in the body.
322
What is a tissue and how does it differ from an organ or system?
A tissue is a group of cells with similar functions, while an organ is made up of different tissues working together, and a system consists of organs that collaborate to perform specific functions in the body.
323
What are the key tissues in vascular plants?
- Xylem
- Phloem
324
How is water taken up by plants?
Water is primarily taken up by plants through their roots, where it enters through osmosis and then moves upward through the xylem tissue.
325
How does water move through plants?
Water moves through plants via transpiration, as water evaporates from the leaves, creating a suction force that pulls water up through the xylem vessels.
326
How is water lost from plants?
Water is lost from plants through transpiration, as it evaporates from the surfaces of leaves and stems.
327
How do animal cells specialize and form tissues, organs, and systems?
Animal cells specialize and form tissues, organs, and systems through cell differentiation, where cells acquire specific structures and functions during development, enabling the organization and coordination of specialized functions in the body.
328
Describe the functions of the digestive systems of animals?
the digestive system of animals is responsible for breaking down food into smaller molecules, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating waste materials from the body.
329
What is the role of the endocrine system in animals?
The endocrine system in animals is responsible for producing and releasing hormones that regulate various bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, reproduction, and response to stress.
330
Explain the functions of the excretory system in animals.
The excretory system in animals is responsible for removing waste products, such as excess water, salts, and metabolic waste (e.g., urea), from the body, maintaining proper fluid balance, and regulating the concentration of ions and pH levels in the bloodstream.
331
How do animal cells communicate to perform specific functions in the tissue?
Animal cells communicate to perform specific functions in the tissue through a process called cell signaling, where cells release chemical signals, such as hormones or neurotransmitters, that bind to specific receptors on target cells, triggering a response and coordinating their activities.
332
How do vascular plants regulate water?
Vascular plants regulate water through transpiration and the controlled opening and closing of stomata to manage water loss and maintain proper water balance within the plant.
333
What is the role of water balance in vascular plants?
The role of water balance in vascular plants is to ensure the proper hydration and functioning of cells, facilitate the transport of nutrients and minerals, maintain turgidity and structural support, and support various physiological processes essential for growth and survival.
334
How is body temperature regulated?
Body temperature is regulated through a process called thermoregulation, where the body maintains a relatively constant internal temperature through mechanisms such as sweating, shivering, vasodilation (expanding blood vessels) and vasoconstriction (contracting blood vessels), adjusting metabolic rate, and behavioral adaptations to respond to changes in external temperature.
335
What are the mechanisms of blood glucose regulation?
The mechanisms of blood glucose regulation involve the actions of insulin, which lowers blood glucose levels, and glucagon, which raises blood glucose levels, ensuring a stable balance of glucose for cellular energy needs.
336
How do animals maintain water balance?
Animals maintain water balance through osmoregulation, a process that involves controlling the concentration of water and solutes within their bodies, adjusting water intake and excretion, and adapting specialized structures and mechanisms to maintain proper internal osmotic conditions.
337
What are stimulus-response models?
Stimulus-response models are frameworks that explain how organisms or systems react and adapt to different stimuli in their environment through specific responses.
338
Explain the concept of feedback loops
Feedback loops are regulatory mechanisms that monitor and adjust a system based on its output, either amplifying or counteracting the initial stimulus to maintain stability and balance.
339
What organ structures are involved in homeostatic regulation?
Organ structures involved in homeostatic regulation include the hypothalamus, which acts as a control center, various endocrine glands that produce hormones, and organ systems such as the circulatory and nervous systems that help coordinate and carry out the necessary responses to maintain internal balance.
340
What does ADH stand for?
Antidiuretic hormone
341
Where is ADH produced?
ADH is produced in the hypothalamus of the brain and released from the posterior pituitary gland.
342
What is the main function of ADH?
The main function of ADH is to regulate water balance in the body by controlling the reabsorption of water by the kidneys.
343
What triggers the release of ADH?
The release of ADH is triggered by an increase in blood osmolality or a decrease in blood volume, which are detected by the hypothalamus.
344
How does ADH act on the kidneys?
ADH acts on the kidneys by increasing the permeability of the collecting ducts, allowing more water to be reabsorbed into the bloodstream.
345
What is the result of increased ADH release?
Increased ADH release leads to increased water reabsorption, which helps concentrate urine and reduce water loss from the body.
346
What happens when ADH levels are low?
When ADH levels are low, less water is reabsorbed by the kidneys, leading to increased urine output and potential dehydration.
347
What conditions can disrupt ADH regulation?
Conditions such as diabetes insipidus, where ADH production or response is impaired, can disrupt ADH regulation and result in excessive urine production and thirst
348
How is ADH release regulated?
ADH release is regulated by negative feedback, where high blood osmolality or low blood volume triggers ADH release, and as these conditions normalize, ADH release is inhibited.
349
What other factors can influence ADH release?
Factors such as stress, alcohol consumption, and certain medications can also influence ADH release and water balance in the body.
