BIOLOGY LECTURE FINALS Flashcards by ADEL CAMANTE

GREGOR MENDEL AND ELEMENTARY GENETICS

The term genetics was derived from the greek word ____ meaning ____ .
This term was first coined by ____ in 1906.
_____ is the branch of biology that deals with the principles of heredity and variation in all living things.

Gen
To become/ to grow into something
William bateson
Heredity

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

GREGOR MENDEL AND ELEMENTARY GENETICS

____ is our genetic heritage, passing from the parents to their offspring. These traits can be physical, a disease or behavioral and _____ is the difference in the genetic make up or physical appearance of a different organisms

Heredity
Variation

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

GREGOR MENDEL AND ELEMENTARY GENETICS

BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
1. ____ Field that studies the structure and function of genes at a molecular level.
2. ____ Study the processes by which organisms grow and develop
3. ____ concerned with the study of the structure and function of the cell, especially the chromosomes
4. ____ the study of how genetic variation leads to evolutionary change
5. ____ study of the fundamental relationship between genes, protein, and metabolism. This involves the study of the cause of many specific heritable disease

Molecular genetics
Developmental genetics
Cytogenetics
Evolutionary genetics
Biochemical genetics

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

GREGOR MENDEL AND ELEMENTARY GENETICS

BRANCHES OF GENETICS
6. ___ the field of study that examines the role of genetics in animal (including human) behavior
7. ___ the study of allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of the four main evolutionary processes: natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene flow
8._____ the study of continuously measured traits (such as height or weight) and their mechanisms

Behavioral genetics
Population genetics
Quantitative genetics

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

APPLICATION OF GENETICS (5)
1. This includes selective breeding, producing high yielding crops, advancements in meat production through breeding that supplied the protein needs, and the use of selected microbial strains that improved the fermentation of foods and food products.
2. Genetic diseases and abnormalities have been identified and appropriate preventive measures are prescribed. Knowing the nature of these defects made it easier to take the preventive steps, including gene therapy.
3. Knowledge of the inheritance of certain desirable or undesirable characteristics will help individuals, prospective parents, and families to understand their genetic history and adapt to the most effective way of treatment, if necessary.
4. Genetics helped solve problems of disputed parentage in settling child support, estate claims or even baby mix-up in hospitals. DNA profiles or fingerprints of suspects have been found to be an accurate tool in identifying criminals.
5. This involves joining of DNA segments from different biological sources producing genetically modified organism (GMO) or transgenic plants, animals, or microorganisms. Therapeutic proteins, hormones and vaccines are also produced using this technology.

Plant, animal and microbial improvement
Medicine
Genetic counseling
Legal application
Recombinant DNA Technology

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

THEORY OF _____ by ____

This theory suggests that ____ small particles in the body were formed everywhere in the man’s body and such gemmule reflected the characteristics of the body part from where it was formed.

Pangenesis
Charles darwin
Gemmules

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

_____ proposed his theory of ____ based on the pangenesis theory. Body modifications acquired by use or disuse could be transmitted to the offspring because the gemmules formed reflected such modifications. He stated that CHANGE IS WHAT ORGANISMS WANT OR NEED

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
Theory of Inheritance of acquired characteristics

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

____ disproved the theory of pangenesis with his theory of ____.
This theory proposed that ____ or sex cells perpetuated themselves in reproduction generation after generation. While ____ or body cells were reproduced by germplasm to protect and reproduce itself.

August weisman
Germplasm theory
Germplasm
Somatoplasm

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

He discovered that hereditary characteristic were determined by elementary factors that are transmitted between generations. He believe that ___ is inherited from generation to generation that each descendant has a physical copy of this material

Gregor mendel
Gene

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

MENDELIAN OBSERVATION

• Garden peas are ____, they are true-breeding plants. They always produce offspring that look like the parent
• Garden peas mature within ___
• Large quantities of garden peas could be ___
Mendel applied _____ he classified the hybrid ___ and determined their perspective frequencies

Self-pollinating
One season
Cultivated simultaneously
Quantitative approach
Progenies

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Mendel observed seven characteristics from his garden peas, each with two contrasting traits.

• For the seeds, he observed the ___ (either round or wrinkled)
• ____ (yellow or green)
• Flower color ( white or violet)
• ____ (full or constricted) and color ___
• ___ (axial pods with flowers along terminal pods with flower at top) and ___ (long or short)

• Mendel confirmed that he was using ___ for white or violet flower color (How mendel perform his experiment)

Form
Color
Pod form
Yellow or green
Stem place
Stem size
True-breeding plants

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

MENDELIAN OBSERVATION

•___ are those that are inherited unchanged in a hybridization while ___ disappear in the offspring of hybridization but reappear in the offspring of the hybrids

Dominant traits
Recessive

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

CHROMOSOMES THEORY OF INHERITANCE

In 1903 ____ and ____ independently suggested the pair factors (in Mendel’s observation) is paralleled by the separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis

• The individual genes are found at specific locations on chromosomes, and the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis can explain why genes are inherited, these observation proposed the ____

• This theory was confirmed when ___ discovered the sex chromosomes on his study about fruit flies

Walter sutton and theodor boveri
Chromosome theory of inheritance
Thomas hunt morgan

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

CHROMOSOMES

The term chromosomes comes from the greek words ___ and ___ which stands for color and body. Chromosomes are thread like structure located inside the nucleus of the cell. The ___ provides support for the structure of chromosomes coiling it and keeping it highly condensed

Chroma
Soma
Protein histone

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

CHROMOSOMES

Chromosomes are also ___ females have two _ Chromosomes (XX) while males have one _ and one _ (__)
Chromosomes has different parts :
• ___ the constricted region of the chromosomes. It help keep chromosomes properly aligned during cell division and the attachment site for the sister chromatids
• ___ are located at the ends of the chromosomes. Protect the ends of the chromosomes and sustain chromosome stability
• ___ region on either side of the centromere.
• The short arm ___
• The long arm ___

Sex determinants
X (XX)
X & Y (XY)
Centromere
Telomeres
Chromosomes arms
P arm
Q arm

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES

• Chromosomes can be ____ when centromere occupies the terminal position, so that the chromosomes has just one arm.
• ____ when the centromere occupies a sub-terminal position (one arm is very long and other is very short)
• ____ Chromosomes are when centromere is positioned slightly awar from the mid-point so that the two arms are unequal.
• ____ is when centromere lies in the middle of chromosomes so that the two arms are almost equal

Telocentric
Acrocentric
Sub-metacentric
Metacentric

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

DNA STRUCTURE

The DNA are made up of ____
• In 1944 ___, ____ and ___ concluded that the DNA is the genetic material. But DNA was first identified in the late 1860s by swiss chemist ____

• DNA is composed of repeating nucleotides, which are made up of a ___ (ribose or deoxyribose) , a ___ (purine (G,A) And pyrimidines (C,T) and ___

Bases ( Cytosine, Guanine, Adenine, Thymine)

Deoxyribonucleic acid
Oswald avery, colin macleod and maclyn mcCarty
Friedrich miescher
Pentose sugar
Nitrogenous base
Phosphoric acid

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

CENTRAL DOGMA
First used by ___

Summarize the event from DNA to RNA to protein production. It explains the flow of genetic information in making functional proteins.
• This describes the step-by-step process of the duplication of the DNA (__), how DNA is transcribed into RNA (__) and how RNA is translated into proteins (__)

Francis crick
Central dogma
Replication
Transcription
Translation

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

CENTRAL DOGMA (REPLICATION)

• During DNA replication, each of the two strands that make up the double helix serves as a template from which new strands are copied. The new strand will be complementary to the parental or “old” strand. This is known as ___ replication.
• There are specific nucleotide sequence called ____ at which replication process begins. When the helicase unwinds and opens the DNA, a Y-Shaped structure called ____ is formed

Semiconservative replication
Origins of replication
Replication fork

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

DNA (TRANSCRIPTION)

• The region of unwinding is called a ___
• Transcription proceeds from one of the two DNA strands, called the ____ RNA polymerase moves along the template strand, separates the two strands while complementing DNA template nucleotide with RNA nucleotides.

___ are complexed with ribosomal proteins to form ribosomes, which are protein synthesizing organelles of the cell.
___ provides the template that contains the nucleotide code for the amino acid sequence of a protein.
___ transfer amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosomes

Transcription bubbles
Template strand
rRNA
mRNA
tRNA

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

DNA (TRANSLATION)

The process by which the mature mRNA is used as a template for synthesizing protein. Carried out in ribosomes. Each amino acid is defined by a three nucleotide sequence called a ___

• The relationship between a nucleotide codon and it’s corresponding amino acid is called the ___

• Three of the 64 codons terminate protein synthesis and release the polypeptide from the translation and machinery. They are UAA, UAG and UGA they are called ___

Codon
Genetic code
Stop codons

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

GENES AND GENE INTERACTIONS

Mendel concluded that individuals had two discrete copies of the characteristics that are passed individually to offspring. He called these as ____ which we call now genes

• A ___ is the unit of heredity occupying a particular location on the chromosomes and passed on to offspring.
• ___ are gene variants that exist at the same relative locations on homologous chromosomes
• The observable traits expressed by an organism are reffered to as its ___ (it is referred to the appearance of an organism) (height, eye color, etc.)
• organisms underlying genetic makeup is called its ___

Factors
Genes
Alleles
Phenotype
Genotype

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

GENES AND GENETIC INTERACTIONS.

____ is a hereditary factor express itself when present
____ Is a hereditary factor that is hidden and Expressed only when two recessive alleles are combined
• Mendel used in his experiment were each ____ for the trait he was studying. This means that an organism has two identical alleles, one on each of their homologous chromosomes.
• When p plants with contrasting traits were cross fertilized, all of the offspring were ___ for the contrasting traits meaning their genotype had different alleles for the gene being examined (Bb)

Dominant allele
Recessive
Homozygous
Heterozygous

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

LAW OF DOMINANCE

____ this states that heterozygote, one trait will conceal the presence of another trait for the same characteristics. Rather than both alleles contributing to a phenotype, the dominant allele will be expressed exclusively.

Law of dominance

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

MONOHYBRID CROSS The fertilization between true breeding parents that differ by only the characteristics being studied. It is called ____ • a ___ is a device invented by ___ used for determining probabilities (measures of likelihood) • ____ can be determined from a punnet square. And if the pattern of inheritance (dominant or recessive) is know, ___ can also be determined

Monohybrid cross Punnet square Reginald Punnet l Genotypic ratios Phenotypic ratio

LAW OF SEGREGATION Mendel proposed the ___ this law states that paired unit factors (genes) must segregate equally into gametes such that offspring have an equal likelihood of inheriting either factor. • In ___ the dominant expressing organisms is crossed with an organism that is homozygous recessive for the same characteristics

Law of segregation Test score

LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT ___ states that genes do not influence each other regarding the sorting of alleles into gametes, and every possible combination of alleles for every gene is equally likely to occur. It can be illustrated by the ____ a cross between two true breeding parents that express different traits for two characteristics

Law of independent assortment Dihybrid cross

ANIMAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION The word animal came from the Latin word ____ which means having breath. Animals are diverse group of organisms that make up the ____ • ___ animals are composed of many cells that are fused together • ___ animals obtain their energy by consuming the bodies of other organisms (Animals must convert these macromolecules into the simple molecules required for maintaining cellular function. This conversion is a multistep process involving ____ and ___ • ____ animal reproduction is necessary for the survival of species

Animalis Kingdom Animalia. Heterotrophic Digestion and absorption Sexual reproduction

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF ANIMALS ___ The process in which an organism develops from a single-celled zygote to a multicellular organism is complex and well-regulated. • ____ undergoes rapid cell division to form ____ in the process termed as ____ •The blastula arranges themselves in two layers: the ____ and the outer layer called the ____ • During ____ the embryonic stem cells express specific sets of genes which will determine their ultimate cell type

Development Zygote Blastula Cleavage Inner mass cells Trophoblast Differentiation

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF ANIMALS ___ Most animals are able to respond rapidly to external stimuli as a result of the activity of their nerve cells and muscle cells. •____ is the ability of an organism to move of its own accord by expending energy and it can be in the form of walking, slithering, swimming, or flying to propel themselves through world. • ____ is the biological property of an organism describing its lack of means of selflocomotion. • Homeostasis- This “constancy of the internal milieu” was first recognized in the 19th century. Later on, the term homeostasis was formed to describe the constancy of the body’s internal environment. • These equilibrium conditions are maintained by mechanisms collectively called as ___

Movement Motility Sessility Feedback systems

COMMON CHARACTERISTIC OF ANIMALS • ___ When a change occurs in an animal’s environment, an adjustment must be made. The receptor senses the change in the environment, then send signals to the control center which in turn generates a response. Homeostasis is maintained by this • ____ maintains the direction of the stimulus, possibly accelerating it. One example here is the uterine contraction during childbirth. • ____ is the process of maintaining salt and water balance across membranes within the body. There is a constant input of water and electrolytes (ions) into the system.

Negative feedback Positive feedback (loop) Osmoregulation

MAIN ANIMAL DIVISION •____ animals have no pattern or symmetry; example is a sponge. •____ is when any plane cut along the longitudinal axis through the organism produces equal halves, but not a definite left or right side. This is mostly found in aquatic animals. • ____ is when an animal can be divided into roughly mirror-image halves only along one particular plane through the central axis.

Asymmetrical Radial symmetry Bilateral symmetry

MAIN ANIMAL DIVISION The evolution of bilateral symmetry is accompanied by ____ the concentration of sensory organs and brain in a defined head region. Cephalization produces an ____(head) end, where sensory cells, sensory organs, cluster of nerve cells, and organs for ingesting food are concentrated. • The other end of a cephalized animal is designated ___ and may feature a tail. • We also have the ___ side that contains the cranial and spinal cord and • the ____ side that contains the thoracic activity – one that surrounds the lungs and heart

Cephalization Anterior Posterior Dorsal Ventral

MAIN ANIMAL DIVISION ____ The blastula folds upon itself to form the three layers of cells. Each of these layers is called a germ layer and each germ layer differentiates into different organ systems. • The ___ gives rise to the nervous system and the epidermis. • The ___ gives rise to the muscle cells and connective tissues in the body. • The ___ gives rise to columnar cells found in the digestive system and many internal organs

Germ layers Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

MAIN ANIMAL DIVISION ___ The members of many bilateral animal have a fluid-filled cavity between the digestive tube and the outer body wall. • The most widespread type of body cavity is a ____ , a fluidfilled cavity that is completely lined with a thin layer of tissue that develops from mesoderm. Animals that have coelom are called coelomates. These are the annelids, arthropods, mollusks, echinoderms, and chordates. • Other animals have a body cavity that is not completely surrounded by a mesoderm-derived tissue. They are called as ____ and they include the roundworms. • While animals that do not have body cavity at all are known as ____.

Body cavities Coelom Pseudocoelomates Acoelomates

TYPES OF ANIMAL TISSUE ____ Epithelial cells are the body’s gatekeepers, protecting and regulating the movement of substances in and out of the body • The types of epithelial tissues are classified by the shape of the cells present, to which they can either be ___, ____ and ____ the number of layers of cells – either ____, ____ or ___.

Epithelial tissue Cuboidal, columnar, squamous Simple, stratified or psudostratified

TYPES OF ANIMAL TISSUE _____ serve mainly to support and bind other tissues. Connective tissues can be place into three main categories: 1. _____ – also called the areolar connective tissue; this combines with the epithelial tissues to form the membranes. They contain a diffuse network of protein fibers, loosely woven through a clear extracellular fluid. It surrounds, cushions and supports most organs of the body. 2. ______ – contains collagen fibers, which are densely packed in an orderly parallel arrangement – a design that contributes to the flexibility and tremendous strength of tendons and ligaments. Tendons connect bones to muscles, while ligaments connect bones to bones. 3. ________ – this includes the cartilage, bone, fat, and blood. •____ covers the ends of bones at joints, provides the supporting framework for the respiratory passages, support the ears and the nose, and forms shock-absorbing pads between the vertebrae. •_____ or ____ has large amount of two types of matrix material – organic and inorganic matrix. • _____ collectively known as ____ tissue are modified for long-term energy storage. They serve as insulations to help maintain body temperature, and function in cushioning against damage to body organs. • ____ is considered a connective tissue because it has a matrix

Connective tissue Loose connective tissue Fibrous connective tissue Specialized connective tissue Cartilage Bone or osseous tissue Fat cells / adipose tissue Blood

TYPES OF ANIMAL TISSUE ____ You owe your ability to sense and respond to the world to nerve tissue, which makes up the brain, the spinal cord, and the nerves that travel from them to all parts of the body. • ____ are specialized to generate electric signals and to conduct these signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands. Glial cells surround, support, electrically insulate, and protect neurons

Nervous tissue Neurons

TYPES OF ANIMAL TISSUE _____ The long, thin cells of muscle tissue contract (shorten) when stimulated, then relax passively. There are three types of muscle tissues in an animal body: smooth, skeletal, and cardiac. They differ by the presence or absence of striations or bands, the number and location of nuclei, whether they are voluntary or involuntary, and their location within the body. 1. ____ is generally under voluntary, or conscious control. Its main function is to move the skeleton, as occurs when you walk or turn the pages of a book. 2. ____ is located only in the heart. It is spontaneously active and involuntary. 3. ____ lacks the orderly arrangement of thick and thin filaments. It is embedded in the walls of digestive tract, the uterus, the bladder, and large blood vessels. It produces slow, sustained contractions that are mostly involuntary.

Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle Smooth muscle

ORGAN SYSTEM ____ • MAJOR STRUCTURES Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, glands producing digestive secretions • PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLE Supplies the body with nutrients that provide energy and materials for growth and maintenance

Digestive

ORGAN SYSTEM • MAJOR STRUCTURES Nose, pharynx, trachea, lungs/gills • PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLE Provides an area for gas exchange between the blood and the environment

Respiratory

ORGAN SYSTEM ___ • MAJOR STRUCTURES Heart, blood vessel, blood • PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLE Transport nutrients, gases, hormones, metabolic wastes, assist in temperature contro

Circulatory

ORGAN SYSTEM ___ • MAJOR STRUCTURES Lymph, lymph nodes, WBC • PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLE Carries fat and excess fluid to blood, destroys invading microbes

Immune system

ORGAN SYSTEM Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra Maintains homeostatic conditions within bloodstream, filters cellular wastes, toxins, and excess water and nutrients

Excretory system

ORGAN SYSTEM ___ Hormone secreting glands and organs Controls physiological processes in conjunction with the nervous system

Endocrine system

ORGAN SYSTEM Brain, spinal cord, nerves Senses the environment, directs behavior

Nervous system

ORGAN SYSTEM Bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments Provides support for the body, attachment sites for muscles, protection of internal organs

Skeletal system

ORGAN SYSTEM ___ Skeletal and smooth muscles Controls movement of substances, moves the skeleton

Muscular system

ORGAN SYSTEM (male) Testes, penis, prostate gland; (female – mammal) ovary, uterus, vagina, mammary glands Produces sperm; produces egg cells, nurtures developing offspring

Reproductive system

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS • a scientist name ____ first proposed organizing the known species of organisms into a hierarchical taxonomy • Linnaeus was the first to name organisms using two unique names, now called the ____ • ____ In this system, species that are most similar to each other are put together within a grouping known as genus. Furthermore, similar genera (plural form of genus) are put together within a family. • The current taxonomic system now has seven levels in its hierarchy: (7)

Carolous Linnaeus Binomial naming system Animal Taxonomic rank Species Genus Family Order Class Phylum Kingdom

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS • ____ , those with a backbone, and • ____ those lacking a backbone. INVERTEBRATES PHYLUM (8) VERTEBRATES PHYLUM (6)

Vertebrates Invertebrates Phylum porifera, Cnidaria, Nematoda, platyhelminthes, annelida, mollusca, echinodermata, anthropoda Phylum chordata, fish, amphibians, reptiles , birds, mammals

INVERTEBRATES 1. _____ The earliest animals probably originated from colonies of simple organisms whose members had become specialized to perform distinct roles within the colonial body. Sponges, which fills the Phylum Porifera, are typically free form in shape and are sessile. 2. _____ The hydra, anemones, and jellyfish that make up the Phylum Cnidaria have tissues. A simple network of nerve cells allows loosely coordinated movements. Digestion is extracellular, and they exhibit radial symmetry. 3. ___ Flatworms have a distinct head with sensory organs and a simple brain. They have a system of canals forming a network through the body that aids in secretion. They lack body cavit

Phylum porifera Phylum Cnidaria Phylum platyhelminthes

INVERTEBRATES 4. Phylum ____ The segmented worms are the most complex of the worms, with a well-developed closed circulatory system and excretory organs. They have compartmentalized digestive system which processes food in sequence 5. Phylum ____ The pseudocoelomate roundworms possess a separate mouth and anus and a cuticle layer that is molted. 6. Phylum ____ The snails, clams, and squid lack a skeleton; some forms protect the soft, moist, muscular body with a single shell or a pair of hinged shells (bivalves). They lack a waterproof external covering that limits the complexity of their behavior. The octopus has the most complex brain and the best-developed learning capacity of any invertebrate. 7. Phylum ____ Arthropods, the insects, arachnids, millipedes, centipedes, and crustaceans are the most diverse and abundant organisms on Earth. They have invaded nearly every available terrestrial and aquatic habitat. They have jointed appendages and well-developed nervous systems that makes their complex, finely coordinated behavior possible. Their exoskeleton and specialized respiratory structures enable insects to survive on dry land. 8. Phylum ____ The sea stars, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers are an exclusively marine group. Echinoderm larvae are bilaterally symmetrical; however, the adults show a radial symmetry. This, in addition to a primitive nervous system that lacks a definite brain, adapts them to a relatively sedentary existence. Echinoderm bodies are supported by a non-living internal skeleton that sends projections through the skin. The water-vascular system, which functions in locomotion, feeding, and respiration, is a unique echinoderm feature.

Annelida Nematoda Mollusca Anthropoda Echinodermata

VERTEBRATES _____ All chordates are united by four features that all possess at some stages of their lives: 1. _____ – a stiff but flexible rod that extends the length of the body and provides an attachment site for muscles. 2. _____ – this hollow neural structure develops a thickening at its anterior end that becomes the brain. 3. ______ – may form functional respiratory openings or may appear only as grooves during an early stage in development. 4. ____ – an extension of the body past the anus

Phylum chordata Notochord Nerve cord Pharyngeal gill slits Post-anal tail

CLASSES OF VERTEBRATES • two groups of jawless fishes survive: the hagfishes and lampreys. Both __ and ____ have eel-shaped bodies and smooth, unscaled skin. •____ are exclusively marine. They live near the ocean floor, often burrowing in the mud, and feed primarily on worms. They have reputation as ( " SLIME BALLS OF THE SEA)

Hagfishes Lampreys Hagfishes

CLASSES OF VERTEBRATES ____ are ancient extant lineage of jawless fish of order ____ The spinal cord of lampreys is protected by segments of cartilage, so lampreys are considered to be true vertebrates. They live in both freshwater and salt waters, but the marine forms must return to fresh water to spawn.

Lampreys Petromyzontiformes

CLASSES OF VERTEBRATES The class ____ derived its name from Greek words meaning “cartilage fishes” and it includes 625 marine species, among them are sharks, skates, and rays. • The ____ fishes are graceful predators that lack any bone in their skeleton, which is formed entirely of cartilage. The body is protected by a leathery skin roughened by tiny scales.

Chondrichthyes ( kaan·drik·theez) Cartilaginous

CLASSES OF VERTEBRATES ____ The most diverse and abundant vertebrates are not birds or the predominantly terrestrial mammals. Rather, the vertebrate diversity crown belongs to the lords of the oceans and fresh water, the bony fishes of the class _____ whose skeletons are composed of bone rather than cartilage. (Angler fish, green moray eel, sea horse)

Bony fishes Osteichthyes (aa•stee•ik•thee•eez)

FISH ADAPTATION AND LIFESTYLES The general lifestyle of fishes can either be ___, ____, or ____. • They possess the ____ lifestyle when they occur in water column far away from the bottom environment. This is often referred to as blue water. Fishes with this lifestyle includes tuna, blue sharks, and mackerel sharks. • ____ includes bottomassociated fishes, but not usually sitting on the bottom. Butterfly fishes, parrotfish, surgeon fish are some examples of this. • ____ lifestyle is for bottom-dwelling fishes that spend the majority of time sitting on the bottom, including flatfishes, gobies, scorpion fishes, and lizard fishes. For the body shape, fishes are either fusiform, compressed, elongated, or depressed. Source of their body coloration are either pigment color – these are the chromatophores for yellows, reds, oranges, browns, and black; or structural color – reflection and light refraction for blues, silvers, and rainbows

Pelagic, demersal, benthic Pelagic lifestyle Demersal Benthic

PATTERN 1. _____ – observed most frequently in pelagic cruisers and results to blue water camouflage. 2. _____ – matching the background coloration; typically seen in benthic fishes, especially benthic ambush predators. 3. ____ coloration – color pattern that breaks up the silhouette of the fish; may involve dark bards across the eye and tail region. 4. _____ and ____ – seen frequently in schooling demersal fishes; may confuse potential predators by making it difficult to select individual prey from school. 5. ____ – false eye spots. 6. _____ – bright, obvious color patterns that may advertise a cleaning station, a warning, of for matin

Countershading Camouflage Disruptive coloration Bars and stripes Misdirection Advertising coloration

LIFE CYCLE Fishes also have different life cycle and migration. First is ____ , in which adult fish live in the sea and migrate into freshwater to spawn, and ____ in which adult fish live in freshwater and migrate to salt water to spawn. • In terms of feeding behavior, most fishes are ____ and prey on everything from zooplanktons to large vertebrates. • Some are ___ that eat plants and micro algae. • There are also ___that filter microorganisms from the water. • •Other groups are _____ that eat dead and dying animals, • ____ that consume fine particulate organic matter, and • ____ that consume parts of other live fishes

Anadromous Catadromous Carnivores Herbivores Suspension feeders Scavengers Detritivorse Parasites

LIFE CYCLE ____ Another group of vertebrates is the amphibians. The species of the class Amphibia straddle the boundary between aquatic and terrestrial existence. Amphibians are tied to moist habitats by their breeding behavior, which requires water.Their fertilization is normally external and must therefore occur in water so that the sperm can swim to the eggs. • ___ include the lizards and snakes, which by far are the most diverse of the modern group, and the turtles, alligators, and crocodiles. •Snakes are limbless and usually lack both pelvic and pectoral girdles. They usually move using ____ where movement follows an S-shaped path. • ___movement of snakes enables them to move in a narrow passage. • And the ____allows desert vipers to move fast over loose, sandy surfaces with a minimum of surface contact.

Amphibians Reptiles Lateral undulation Concertina Sidewinder motion

LIFE CYCLE ____ The first birds appear in the fossil record roughly 150 million years ago and are distinguished from other reptiles by the presence of feathers, which are essentially a higher specialized version of reptilian body scales. • . All birds also have hindlimbs adapted for walking, swimming, or perching. They also have different kinds of wings particular to their kind of flight: 1. ____ wings – good for maneuvering in forests. 2. ____wings – used by birds that feed during flight or that make long migrations. 3. _____ wings – used by oceanic birds that exploit the reliable sea winds. 4. ____ wings – found in predators that carry heavy loads. Soaring over land with variable air currents.

Birds Elliptical High speed Dynamic soaring High lift

MIGRATION The stimulus for migration has to do with the changing hormone levels brought about by a change in day length. These birds navigate using a number of cues: • ___ cues (landmarks), • ____ , ____ , or ____ cues (sun by day, stars at night).

Visual cues Accurate sense of time Earth's magnetic field Celestial

Social Relationships and Youngs of Birds Two types of mating systems are present in birds:____ where an individual has one mate (seasonal or lifelong), or • ____ – where an individual has more than one mate during a breeding season. It has two types: • ____ – one male, many females, and • _____– one female, many males. Most birds build nests in which to lay eggs. When the young hatch they are either precocial or altricial. •_____ young, such as ducks, water birds, fowl and quail are covered with down (soft feathers) when they hatch and can run or swim as soon as their down dries. •_____ young, on the other hand, are naked and unable to see or walk at hatching

Monogamy Polygamy Polygyny Polyandry Precocial Altricial

LIFE CYCLE ____ are represented by more than 5,000 species. They are warm-blooded and have high-metabolic rates. In most mammals, fur protects and insulates the warm body. Mammals also have four chambered hearts that increase the amount of oxygen delivered to the tissues. • In one group of mammals, the ____, the period of uterine development is short, and the young are born at a very immature stage of development. • Most mammal species are ____ mammals and retain their young in the uterus for a much longer period. “Placental” refers to the placenta, the uterine structure that functions in gas, nutrient, and waste exchange between the circulatory systems of the mother and embryo

Mammals Marsupials Placental mammals

PLANT STRUCTURE & FUNCTION ___ the study of plants UNIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS • Plants are ___ Plants are primarily oxygenic ____ , that is, they conduct photosynthesis in which oxygen is released as a byproduct. They share this fundamental metabolism with cyanobacteria, various organisms referred to as algae, and even a few animals. • Plants are ____ multicellular, primarily terrestrial organisms descended from green algae Plant cells use systems to carry out the functions needed to keep the plant alive. Plants need places to store nutrients, water, and food, make food and prevent desiccation or drying therefore needs more than one cell and cell type to proliferate. • The formal Plant Kingdom (clade ___) is descended from the green algal group ___, and consists of complex, multicellular, mostly terrestrial plants in which early embryonic growth is protected and nurtured in special chambers on the parent plant. • ____, singular alga, members of a group of predominantly aquatic photosynthetic organisms of the kingdom Protista. Algae have many types of life cycles, and they range in size from microscopic Micromonas species to giant kelps that reach 60 meters (200 feet) in length

Photosynthetic Photoautotrophs Eukaryotic Embryophyta Charophyta Algae

UNIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS New tissues and organs are formed at ____ Growth in plants is localized in specialized tissues. The meristems for primary growth (apical meristems) are located at the tips of shoots and roots, and in plants with elongated stems, cell division, and expansion may continue for some time within the internodes. • Plants are ___ systems Plant cells have rigid cell walls made primarily of cellulose, which limit cell expansion caused by osmosis. This results in turgor pressure, which plays a part in cell growth, tissue expansion, movement of plant parts, maintenance of organ rigidity, and transport of food, water, and minerals. • The cell walls are outside of the living protoplasts, and along with intercellular spaces and hollow conducting cells, collectively create a non-living matrix ____through which water may move from one part of the plant to another. • Cytoplasmic strands (____) connect the living protoplasts of plant cells, resulting in a second network (____) through which fluids including dissolved sugar and other organics, may also move from one part of the plant to another, often through active manipulation of osmotic forces. A large central vacuole contains water and other stored substances and helps regulate cytoplasmic water and solute content

Meristems Hydrostatic Apoplast Plasmodesmata Symplast

UNIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS Plants have complex reproductive cycles involving the alternation of generations As non-motile organisms, multicellular plants are dependent on external factors, such as wind, water, or animals, to complete sexual reproduction and disperse their genetic progeny to distant locations. In the simplest land plants, sperm cells swim to eggs through water, but dispersal to new locales is a separate process achieved by airborne spores. As the long-distance dispersal of spores and the short-distance travel of gametes have very different requirements, plants typically alternate between two distinct multicellular bodies or generations. √ • A diploid spore-producing body (____ ) produces spores through meiosis and is typically tall so as to launch the spores for effective dispersal by air currents. • Spores germinate into haploid gamete-producing bodies (_____) which remain small and close to the ground so that sperm cells can be released into films of surface water and need to travel only a short distance to unite with an egg on a genetically different plant.

Sporophyte Gametophyte

HIERARCHY OF PLANT ORGANIZATION . Plants have two vegetative organ systems, the ___ system, and the ___ system. ___meristems can produce new tissue throughout the plant’s life. Most cells are ___ (has the potential to divide until it creates an entire, complete organism), so plants can repair damage • ___ System – anchors plant, absorbs water and minerals, stores products of photosynthesis. Branching increases surface area for absorption. • ___ System – leaves are the main photosynthetic organs; stems hold leaves up to expose them to sunlight and connect the roots and leaves

Root Shoot Apical Totipotent Root Shoot

BASIC PLANT CELL TYPES • ____ - the most common type of plant cell—stores starch, oils, and water for the plant. You can find it throughout a plant. These cells have thin walls and large water-filled vacuoles in the middle. Photosynthesis occurs in green chloroplasts within this cells in leaves. • ____ - has cell walls that range from thin to thick, providing support while still allowing the plant to grow. These cells are most common in the younger tissues of leaves and shoots. They often form into strands • ___ - of the three basic plant cell types, a sclerenchyma cell is the strongest. These cells have a second cell wall that is hardened by lignin, which makes these cells very tough and durable. But the lignin also makes these cells very rigid. Unlike collenchyma cells, they can’t grow with the plant. Therefore, this cells are found in parts of the plant that aren’t lengthening anymore

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

TYPES OF PLANT TISSUES there are three groups of tissue systems in plants: ___, ___, and _____ systems • ___ Tissue - Your body is covered with skin. Plants don’t have skin, but they do have a system of dermal tissue that covers the outside of a plant and protects it in a variety of ways. This tissue, called epidermis, is made up of live parenchyma cells in the nonwoody parts of plants • Some epidermal cells may differentiate into the following: • ___ (pores for gas exchange), • ___ (leaf hairs, that protect against herbivores and damaging solar radiation), and • ___ (increase root surface area).

Dermal Ground Vascular tissue system Dermal Stomata Trichomes Root hairs

TYPE OF PLANT TISSUES • ___ tissue provides support and stores materials in roots and stems. In leaves, ground tissue is packed with chloroplasts, where photosynthesis makes food for the plant. The ground tissue system consists of all three of the simple tissues—parenchyma tissue, collenchyma tissue, and sclerenchyma tissue—but parenchyma is by far the most common of the ground tissues. • ___ Tissue - Surrounded by ground tissue, the system of vascular tissue transports water, mineral nutrients, and organic compounds to all parts of the plant. Plants can transport necessary fluids and nutrients throughout their systems. • ___ is the vascular tissue that carries water and dissolved mineral nutrients up from the roots to the rest of the plant. • ____ is the vascular tissue that carries the products of photosynthesis through the plant

Ground tissue Vascular tissue Xylem Phloem

XYLEM ELEMENTS Water and dissolved minerals move up from the roots to the rest of the plant through the xylem. The ___ contains other types of cells besides the basic cell types. Because it contains other types of cells, xylem tissue is called ___ tissue. • One type of specialized cell in the xylem is called a ____. cells are long and narrow. Water can flow from cell to cell in this through openings in the thick cell walls. • The ____ theory proposes that the physical properties of water allow the rise of water through a plant. This well-supported theory is based on the strong attraction of water molecules to one another and to other surfaces. The tendency of hydrogen bonds to form between water molecules creates a force called cohesion

Xylem Complex Tracheid cell Cohesion tension

PHLOEM ELEMENTS ____ carries plant nutrients, including minerals and sugars, throughout the plant. It moves the products of photosynthesis out of the leaves to stems and roots. • Unlike the xylem, phloem tissue is alive.Phloem is a complex tissue made mostly of cells called ____ elements. Their name comes from the small holes in the end walls of their cells • The ___ model is a well-supported theory that explains how food, or sap, moves through a plant. Phloem sap moves from a sugar source to a sugar sink. A source is any part of the plant that has a high concentration of sugars.

Phloem Sieve tube Pressure-flow

PLANT ORGANS ___ support the plant and absorb, transport, and store nutrients. Like other plant parts, roots contain all three tissue system vascular, ground, and dermal. • Roots take one of two basic forms. ____ systems have a long, thick, vertical root with smaller branches. • ____ allow plants to get water from deep in the ground. The ____ can also sometimes store food. Radishes, carrots, and beets are examples of taproots that we eat. • ___ root systems, on the other hand, make fine branches in which most of the roots are the same size. These roots spread like a mat beneath the soil surface, and firmly anchor the plant to the ground.

Roots Taproots Long taproots Thick taproots Fibrous

PLANT ORGANS (ROOTS) Many plants have root adaptations with specialized functions. Some of them include the following: • ___ roots – aerial roots of Hala trees support the tall, top-heavy trees which are found in sandy, unstable soils • ____ roots – many plants store food and water in their roots; common beet • ______ roots, such as those found on mangroves allow the root system to obtain oxygen which is lacking in the thick mud of intertidal swamps • ____roots - large, wide roots on all sides of a shallowly rooted tree. Typically, they are found in nutrient-poor tropical forest soils that may not be very deep. They prevent the tree from falling over while also gathering more nutrients. • ____ roots - aerial roots from tree branches that are sent down through the air. When they reach the ground, these roots grow into the soil, thicken, and become additional "trunks.

Prop Storage Pneumatophores- air Buttress Strangling Aerial

STEMS ____ often house a majority of the vascular system and can store food or water • ___ plants produce little or no wood. They are usually soft because they do not have many rigid xylem cells. This plants may be monocots, such as corn, or dicots, such as beans, and most do not grow taller than two meters.stems are often green and may conduct photosynthesis • Most plants with ___are dicots, such as many broadleaf trees or gymnosperms—pines or fir trees. •

Stems Herbaceous Woody stems

STEMS The pattern of plant growth depends on the location of the meristems within the plant. Growth that increases a plant’s length—makes stems grow taller or roots grow longer—is called ____ growth. This type of growth takes place in apical meristems found at the ends of stems and roots. ____: growth adds to the width in the stems and roots of woody plants. Dicot trees, such as oak and maple, produce a lot of secondary growth over their lifetimes • Some plants have stems with additional functions, such as food storage and asexual reproduction. These are examples of modified stems: • ____ – horizontal shoot that grows just below the surface of the ground;vertical shoots emerge from axillary buds • ____ – horizontal shoots that grow along the surface of the ground; “runners” allow asexual reproduction as plantlets form at nodes • ____ - enlarged ends of rhizomes or stolons specialized for storing carbohydrates; “eyes” of potatoes are clusters of axillary buds • ____ – vertical underground shoots consisting of enlarged bases of leaves that store carbohydrate

Primary Secondary Rhizome Stolon Tubers Bulbs

LEAVES ____ have an outer covering of dermal tissue and an internal system of vascular tissue surrounded by ground tissue. The dermal tissue of many leaves is covered by a waxy ___ that forms a water-resistant covering. The cuticle protects the inner tissues and limits evaporation from the plant. Between the two dermal layers of a leaf is parenchyma tissue called ___

Leaves Cuticle Mesophyll

PARTS OF FLOWER A flower has female and male parts. The male part of a flower is called the ____. •The female part of a flower is called the ___or ___. A stamen is made up of two main parts, an anther, and a filament. • The ___ produces pollen grains which contain the male gametes or sperm cells. • This ___ holds the anther in position, making the pollen available for dispersal by wind, insects, or birds. • The ____, on the other hand, is generally shaped like a bowling pin and is in the flower's center. It includes the stigma, style, and ovary. • The ___ is located at the top and is connected by the style to collect the pollen grains. • The ___ supports the stigma anD connects it to the ovary. •The ___contains the female gametes or the egg cells, which is located inside the ovules.Other non-reproductive or accessory parts of a flower are the sepals and the petals. • ___are small, green, leaflike structures located at the base of a flower which protects the flower bud. Collectively, they are called __ • While ___are the colored portions of a flower. They may contain perfume to attract pollinators. • Collectively, the petals are called ___. The petals and sepals are called ___

Stamen Pistil Carpel Anther Filament Pistil Stigma Style Ovary Sepals Calyx Petals Corolla Perianth

PARTS OF FLOWER To fuse these two gametes together, the male gametes must reach the female gametes through a process called ___ the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma, either by wind or by pollinators. The flowers pollinated by insects, animals or birds often have brightly colored or patterned flowers that contain fragrance or nectar • ___ occurs when the pollen from the anther is deposited on the stigma of the same flower. • ___ is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on a different individual of the same species or the same kind. Cross-pollinated plants are usually more successful than self-pollinated plants. So, more plants reproduce by cross-pollination than by self-pollination. After pollination, ____ occurs

Pollination Self pollination Cross pollination Fertilization

PARTS OF FLOWER These pollen grains have two cells: the ___ cell and the ___ cell or the male gametes. • The ___ tube cell grows into a pollen tube that travels through the style until it reaches the ovary. It makes a path for the two male gametes or two sperm cells leading them all the way to the ovules where the female gamete or egg cells are present • As they get to the ovaries, the two sperm cells will undergo two different processes of fertilization. •One sperm fertilizes or unites with the egg cell, forming a ___ . The other sperm will go and unite with the two polar nuclei, forming a ___ cell that develops into an ___, which is a tissue that provides nourishment to the embryo as it germinates. Together, these two fertilization events in flowering plants are known as ___

Pollen tube Generative cell Diploid zygote Triploid cell Endosperm Double fertilization

SEED STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT A __ contains all the genetic information needed to develop into an entire plant. It is made up of three parts: the __ the ___, and the ___. • The __is the hard outer covering that protects the seed from disease and insects. • The __is a built-in food supply, which can be made up of proteins, carbohydrates, or fats. And the ___ which is the miniature plant in a dormant or inactive state of development.

Seed Seed coat Endosperm Embryo Seed coat Endosperm Embryo

FRUIT STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT The rest of the fruit arises from the maternal plant and is genetically identical to it. The fruit primarily contains two parts: the __ and the __ •The ___is the outer wall of the ovary from which the fruit developed. The pericarp has three layers: the __,__ and __ • The __ is the outermost layer of the pericarp that forms the skin. • The ___ is the thick, fleshy, and juicy middle layer, which is usually edible. •Lastly, the ___ is the innermost layer of the fruit which encloses the seed/s.

Pericrap Seed Exocarp Mesocarp Endocarp

FRUIT STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT They can be classified as ___, ___, or ___. • ___fruits develop from a single ovary of a single flower. They include fruits such as tomatoes, lemons, cucumber, and eggplant. • ___ An aggregate fruit develops from a single flower with many ovaries • ___ Multiple fruits are derived from a tight cluster of separate, independent flowers borne on a single structure. Each flower has its own calyx and corolla. Pineapples and figs are examples.

Simple Aggregate Multiple Simple Aggregate fruits Multiple fruits

SEED GERMINATION • The process by which different plant species grow from a single seed into a plant is called ___ • During the primary stage of germination, the seeds take up water rapidly and this results in swelling and softening of the seed coat at an exact temperature. This stage is referred to as ___. The seed activates and starts to respire and produce proteins. It also uses up the stored food (which is the endosperm). •The ___ or the embryonic root emerges to form a primary root to start absorbingwater underground. After the growth of the radicle, the ___ (embryonic shoot) starts to rise, which makes the shoot or the first true leaves grow towards the sunlight.

Germination Imbibition Radicle Plumule

PLANT ADAPTATIONS ___ are special features that allow a plant or animal to live in a particular place or habitat. • Adaptations to ___ Aquatic plants are plants that live in water. Many kinds of aquatic plants have its own distinct adaptive characteristics. These plants may be either entirely floating or partially submerged. The water lily is an example of a floating plant. • Adaptations to ___ Plants that live in extremely dry environments have the opposite problem, which is how to get and keep enough water. Plants that are adapted to very dry environments are called ___. • Adaptations to ___ that have no attachment to the ground are called air plants or ___ They usually grow on the surface of other plants and absorbs nutrients from rain, air, or vapor.

Water Extreme dryness Xerophytes Air Epiphytes

PLANT RESPONSES ___ move through a plant from the place where they are produced to the place where they will trigger a response. Plant hormones are divided into several different types based on their functions. • ____ are plant hormones that are produced in the growing roots and developing seeds, fruits, roots, and branches. They stimulate cytokinesis, which is the final stage of cell division. They are also involved in the growth of side branches. This sideways growth is called lateral growth, which causes roots, seeds, and fruits to grow thicker. • ____ are hormones that increase the size of stems and fruit. They are also responsible for the large size of many fruits and the rapid upward growth of some flower stalks. Grape growers often spray their vines with a gibberellin solution, which makes the fruits grow larger and elongates the stems in the bunches, making room for more grapes

Hormones Cytokinins Gibberellins

PLANT RESPONSES • ___ is a plant hormone that causes ripening and is naturally produced by fruits. Say for example, when you put an apple in an airtight container for a day, and it will get soft and start to look rotten. The apple is being ripened abnormally fast by its own production of ethylene. • ___ are plant hormones involved in the lengthening of plant cells produced in the apical meristem or growing tip of the plant. They stimulate cell elongation. Gardeners can use this property of auxins to control branching patterns by cutting offthe tip of a growing stem. With no growing tip, there is less auxin in the stem. In the same way, the lengthening of cells triggered by auxins also controls some forms of tropism, the movement of a plant in response to an environmental stimulus

Ethylene Auxins

PLANT RESPONSES •___show how plants respond to certain environmental stimuli such as light, touch, gravity, and seasonal changes. Each response demonstrates the ability of plants to respond effectively to their habitat conditions. • ____ - When light hits a plant stem, it causes auxins to build up on the shaded side. Remember that in a stem, auxins cause cell elongation. Cell lengthening on the shaded side of a stem causes the stem to bend toward the light. This tendency of a plant to grow toward light is called phototropism. This picture specifically shows that when plants grow towards the light, it is called ___phototropism while the roots growing away from light is ____phototropism •

Tropism Phototropism Positive Negative

PLANT RESPONSES • ___ - When a seed germinates underground, the root grows downward into the soil, and the shoot grows upward toward the soil surface. This up -and-down growth of a plant is called gravitropism because the plant is responding to Earth’s gravitational pull. Auxins play a part in gravitropism. Root growth is stimulated by low levels of auxin. At the same time, high levels of auxin stimulate shoot growth, causes the stem to grow upward. • ___ - Many plants also have a response to touch, called thigmotropism. This quality is apparent in climbing plants and vines. Tendrils emerge from the leaf base of these plants and grow in coils around anything they touch. Plants are sensitive to many kinds of touch-like stimuli. An example are the vines and climbing plants growing around a house or fence are attracted to the feel of the object. On the other hand, the folding movement of Mimosa pudica or makahiya plant is called thigmonasty or seismonasty. • ___ - is another example of tropism where plants take signals from the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year. It is responsible for the timing of seasonal activities such as flowering and growth.

Gravitropism Thigmotropism Photoperiodism

PLANT RESPONSES • Plants that flower when the period of light during the day is short is called ___ plants. • plants that flower when the period of light during the day is long is called ___ plants. These plants will traditionally not flower during the winter and autumn months when night lengths are long. • ___ - a period during which an organism’s growth and activity is decreased or stopped.

Short-day Long-day Winter-dormancy

THE HUMAN BODY Our body is organized in several levels.It is composed of four types of tissues: 1. ___ are the most abundant tissue and controls the internal movement digestion, blood through veins and the external movement of the body; (2) ____ are the covering of our body, and can be also found in the linings of organs and vessels; (3) ___ tissues are the ligaments and tendons and hold organs in place; (4) ___ tissues receive messages from body’s internal and external messages, analyzes the data and provides a direct response.

Muscle tissue Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Nervous tissue

THE HUMAN BODY Human body is composed of 11 organ system that maintain homeostasis. •___ System - delivers oxygenated blood to the various cells and organ system in your body so they can undergo cellular respiration. • ___ System - coordinate’s the body’s response to changes in its internal and external environment. • ___ System - provides the body with a fresh supply of oxygen for cellular respiration and remove the waste product carbon dioxide. • ___ System - converts food particles into simpler micro molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream and used by the body. • ___ System - removes infectious diseases and other pathogens from the human body. • ___ System - for temperature regulation, waste removal, sensory information, and protection. • ___ System - controls growth, development, metabolism and reproduction through production and secretion of hormones. • ___ System - secretes the body wastes including excess water and salts. • ___ System - provides structure and support to the human body. • ___ System - produces, matures, nourishes, and stores gametes. • ___ System - works with the skeletal and nervous system to produce movement, also helps to circulate blood through the human body

Circulatory Nervous Respiratory Digestive Lymphatic/ immune Integumentary Endocrine Excretory Skeletal Reproductive Muscular

MOST COMMON DISEASES 1.___ Disease or coronary heart disease is the deadliest disease in the world. It occurs when the blood vessels that supply blood to the heart become narrowed. If left untreated, it can lead to chest pain, heart failure and arrhythmias. 2. ___ occurs when an artery in our brain in blocked or leaks. This causes the oxygen-deprived brain cells to begin dying within minutes. During a stroke, you can feel the sudden numbness and confusion or have trouble walking and seeing. If this is left untreated, it can cause long-term disability

Ischemic heart disease Stroke

MOST COMMON DISEASES • ___ is an infection in the airways and lungs. It can be due to influenza (flu), pneumonia, bronchitis, or tuberculosis. Viruses and bacteria can cause this kind disease. Coughing is the main symptom of a lower respiratory infection. A person can also experience breathlessness, wheezing, and a tight feeling in the chest. If left untreated, it can lead to breathing disorder and death. • ___ (COPD) is a long-term, progressive lung disease that makes breathing difficult. Chronic bronchitis and emphysema are types of COPD. • ___ include cancers of the trachea, larynx, bronchus, and lungs. The main causes of it are smoking, secondhand smoke, and environmental toxins. Household pollution like fuels and mold can also contribute.This disease can affect anyone

Lower respiratory infection. Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases Respiratory cancers

MOST COMMON DISEASES •___ is a group of diseases that affect insulin production and use. There are two types of diabetes: Type I diabetes, in which the pancreas fails to produce insulin; and Type II diabetes, wherein the pancreas doesn’t produce enough insulin, or the insulin can’t be used effectively. The latter is caused by a number of factors such as poor diet, lack of exercise, and being overweight •___ Disease and other DementiasAlzheimer’s or dementia is usually attributed to memory loss, but we don’t usually think of it as a loss of life. This disease is a progressive disease that destroys memory and interrupts normal mental functions, including thinking, reasoning, and typical behavior. •___ Disease If you’ve experienced three or more loose stools in a day, then we can call that as a diarrhea. If it lasts for more than a few days, your body loses too much water and salt and causes dehydration that can lead to death. This disease is usually caused by an intestinal virus or bacteria transmitted through contaminated water or food. It is particularly widespread in developing nations with poor sanitary conditions

Diabetes mellitus Alzheimer's disease Dehydration due to diarrheal disease

MOST COMMON DISEASES •___ is a lung condition by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is treatable airborne bacterium, but some strains are resistant to conventional treatment. This disease is one of the top causes of death in people who have HIV.Its risk factors consist of: diabetes; HIV infection; a lower body weight; proximity to others with TB; and regular use of certain medications like corticosteroids or drugs that suppress the immune system. •___ Cirrhosis Cirrhosis is the result of chronic or long-term scarring and damage to the liver. The damage may be the result of kidney disease, or it can be caused by conditions like hepatitis and chronic alcoholism. A healthy liver filters harmful substance from your blood and sends healthy blood into your body. As substances damage the liver, scar tissue forms. As more scar tissue forms, the liver has to work harder to function properly

Tuberculosis Cirrhosis

COMMON GENETIC DISORDERS A ___ disorder is the result of genetic abnormalities such as gene mutation or additional chromosomes. 1. ____ Originally, our nucleus contains 23 pairs of chromosomes but for the individuals with Down syndrome, the 21st chromosome is copied an extra time in all or some cells. Test such as prenatal screening (blood test) can detect the quantities of chromosomal material and other substances in a mother’s blood. It can determine whether or not a child will be born with Down syndrome. If a person is diagnosed with Down syndrome, they may exhibit varying levels of mild to severe cognitive delays, aside from that it also includes higher disposition for congenital heart defects, low muscle tone, smaller physical stature, and an upward slant to the eye. 2. ___ is a family of hereditary genetics conditions that limits the amount of hemoglobin an individual can naturally produce. It inhibits the oxygen flow throughout the body.The disease usually comes with severe anemia which may require specialized care, such as regular blood transfusions and chelation therapy

Genetic disorder Down syndrome Thalassemia

COMMON GENETIC DISORDERS 3. ___ is a chronic genetic condition that causes patients to produce thick and sticky mucus, inhibiting their respiratory, digestive, and reproductive systems. 4.___ It is caused by a chromosomal defect similar to that of Down Syndrome, which is found in chromosome no. 15 and the disorder is irreversibly fatal when found in children. It gradually destroys the nervous system, frequently resulting in death by age of five while adults can also be diagnosed with Late-Onset Tay-Sachs disease, which causes a manageable level of diminished cognitive ability. 5. ___ Sickle cell disease is a lifelong genetic condition that may be inherited when the sickle cell trait is passed down by both parents to their children The disease causes red blood cells to change from their usual donut shape to a sickle shape and causes the cells to clump together and become caught in blood vessels, triggering severe pain and serious complications such as infections, organ damage, and acute respiratory syndrome

Cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs disease Sickle cell anemia

LAST •___ is one of the most important aspects of community well-being because it protects human health, extends life spans, and is documented to provide benefits to the economy. It is deployed as a way to contain and/or treat human health and the environment. •___ A good personal hygiene includes washing the body regularly, cleaning the teeth at least once a day or much preferably every after meal, washing the hair with soap or shampoo at least once a week, washing hands with soap after going to the toilet and before food preparation • ___ Practices Safe practices and healthy choices at work, home, and play can prevent many injuries, illnesses, diseases, and deaths.

Sanitation and hygiene Personal hygiene Basic first aid practices

LAST •___ of Providing First Aid If you decided to help an ill or injured person, you must not leave them until someone with equal or more emergency training takes over - unless of course, it becomes dangerous for you to stay. • ___ of Providing First AidBoth the victim and first aid provider may suffer emotional distress during and even after a traumatic incident •___ The risk of getting the disease while giving first aid is very low, but we should still protect ourselves while we are providing first aid care. You can use personal protective equipment (PPE) to provide a barrier between you and a victim’s blood or body fluid.

Legal aspects Emotional aspects Infectious diseases

Types of Chromosome According to Position of Centromere (4)

Telocentric Acrocentric Sub-metacentric Metacentric

BIOLOGY LECTURE FINALS Flashcards

(106 cards)