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Biotechnology (core) Flashcards

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1
Q

What is microbial biotechnology often referring to?

A

The genetic engineering of bacteria to act as factories for producing valuable products like fuels, drugs, and hormones.

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2
Q

What types of products can be produced by microbes on an industrial scale?

A

Naturally occurring products or products from genetically modified bacteria.

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3
Q

What are the three main biotechnology approaches using microorganisms?

A

1) Use of natural products,
2) Expression of a single gene to harvest a protein,
3) Introduction of entire metabolic pathways to produce metabolites.

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4
Q

Which bacteria produce acetic acid (vinegar)?

A

Acetic acid bacteria, such as Acetobacter.

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5
Q

What conditions do acetic acid bacteria thrive in?

A

Obligate aerobes; grow well at pH<5.

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6
Q

How is vitamin C production linked to microbial metabolism?

A

Acetic acid bacteria can carry out incomplete oxidation of higher alcohols and sugars, producing intermediates used to synthesize vitamin C.

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7
Q

Which genus is known for antibiotic production?

A

Streptomycetes.

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8
Q

How many antibiotics are produced by streptomycetes?

A

Over 500 distinct antibiotics.

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9
Q

What does a clear zone in a bioassay indicate?

A

Antibiotic production and inhibition of another bacterium’s growth.

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10
Q

How is propionic acid bacteria used in cheese production?

A

They produce CO₂ and propionic acid during fermentation, forming holes and giving Swiss cheese its taste.

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11
Q

What was the first human protein produced by genetically engineered bacteria?

A

Insulin (‘Humulin’), released in 1982.

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12
Q

What genetic strategy is used to express human insulin in bacteria?

A

Constructing an artificial gene that directly encodes the final hormone instead of its precursor.

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13
Q

What promoter must be used to express eukaryotic genes in bacteria?

A

A bacterial promoter.

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14
Q

Why must eukaryotic genes be cloned from mature RNA?

A

Because bacterial systems can’t process introns.

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15
Q

What is codon bias?

A

Preference for certain codons by different organisms, which may require changing codons to match the host bacteria, if the bacteria used in biotech does not efficiently recognise the rare codon.

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16
Q

Why might mammalian proteins not be functional in bacteria?

A

They often require post-translational modifications that bacteria can’t perform.

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17
Q

What problems may arise when expressing eukaryotic proteins in bacteria?

A

Proteins may be degraded or toxic to the host, requiring further engineering.

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18
Q

Why are entire metabolic pathways sometimes engineered in bacteria?

A

To produce metabolites like food additives, dyes, antibiotics, or biofuels that need more than one gene.

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19
Q

What is pathway engineering?

A

Assembling or improving a biochemical pathway using genes from one or more organisms to increase metabolite production.

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20
Q

How is indigo dye produced using biotechnology?

A

By inserting a single gene into E. coli that enables the indigo biosynthetic pathway.

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21
Q

What is the goal of using microbes for reactions rather than products?

A

To utilize their enzymes in processes like breaking down pollutants or synthesizing industrial enzymes.

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22
Q

What is bioremediation?

A

The microbial clean-up of environmental pollutants like oil, uranium, pesticides, and plastics.

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23
Q

What are PHAs and their significance?

A

Polyhydroxyalkanoates – biodegradable plastics made by bacteria, offering an alternative to synthetic plastics.

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24
Q

What limits the use of microbial plastics?

A

High production cost and competition with biofuels for carbon sources.

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25
What is microbial leaching?
Using microbes to extract metals from low-grade ores.
26
How are microbes essential tools in biotechnology?
They provide cloning systems, restriction enzymes, and CRISPR-Cas systems.
27
What is a metagenome?
The collective genomes of all organisms in a specific environment.
28
What is gene mining?
The process of identifying useful novel genes from environmental samples without culturing the organisms.
29
What kind of enzymes has metagenomics helped discover?
Enzymes that degrade pollutants, make antibiotics, lipases, chitinases, esterases, and others with industrial resistance.
30
What is targeted gene mining?
Screening metagenomic samples for enzymes with specific desired properties.
31
What are the four steps of targeted gene mining?
1) Identify needed enzyme, 2) Sample polluted environment, 3) Clone environmental DNA, 4) Screen for enzyme activity in clones.
32
What was the Green Revolution?
A 1970s global effort that used new crop varieties, irrigation, fertilizers, pesticides, and mechanization to double food production and reduce hunger.
33
What is micropropagation?
The rapid multiplication of plants using tissue culture to produce genetically identical and disease-free plants.
34
How does plant tissue culture eliminate systemic viruses?
Viruses usually do not infect the meristem, allowing healthy tissue to regenerate into virus-free plants.
35
What is molecular breeding?
The use of DNA markers linked to desired traits to speed up breeding by selecting seedlings with favorable genes.
36
What is a DNA marker?
A sequence closely linked to a gene of interest used to identify and select for desired traits in breeding programs.
37
What are SNPs?
Single nucleotide polymorphisms; common DNA variations used as genetic markers.
38
What is protoplast fusion?
The merging of plant cells without cell walls from different species to create hybrids not possible through conventional breeding.
39
What is embryo rescue?
The cultivation of embryos from interspecies crosses that would otherwise abort, enabling new hybrid plants.
40
How can plants be used as cell factories?
By expressing genes that produce drugs, dyes, flavors, or fragrances directly in plant cells or tissues.
41
What is an example of a plant-derived pharmaceutical?
Taxol from the Pacific Yew tree, used as a potent anti-cancer drug that inhibits cell division by stabilizing microtubules.
42
Why are transgenic plants needed in plant-based pharmaceutical production?
To express and scale up the production of specific compounds for medicine.
43
What is a transgenic plant?
A plant modified to contain and express foreign genes (transgenes) from any organism.
44
How is a transgene constructed?
By combining a promoter (on/off switch) with a coding region (gene of interest) into a single DNA construct.
45
How is plant transformation typically done?
Using *Agrobacterium tumefaciens* to insert transgenes into plant cells, followed by tissue culture to regenerate whole plants.
46
What does *Agrobacterium tumefaciens* do naturally?
It causes crown gall disease by inserting part of its plasmid DNA into the plant genome.
47
How is *Agrobacterium* used in biotechnology?
Its tumor-inducing genes are replaced with transgenes for desired traits, allowing gene transfer to plants.
48
What is the leaf disc transformation method?
Incubating leaf discs with *Agrobacterium* carrying a transgene, then regenerating shoots and roots in selective media.
49
What is the role of plant hormones in regeneration? What are the names of these 2 hormones?
Cytokinin and auxin regulate the development of shoots and roots in tissue culture.
50
What is Bt and how is it used in GM crops?
*Bacillus thuringiensis* produces insecticidal proteins; its genes are inserted into crops for pest resistance.
51
How does GM rice address vitamin A deficiency?
Golden Rice expresses beta-carotene biosynthesis genes from daffodil and bacteria, helping prevent blindness in children.
52
Why is improving amino acid content in crops challenging?
Essential amino acids are unevenly distributed in crops; engineering for balance can affect plant growth negatively.
53
What oils have been improved through GM technology?
Omega-3 fatty acid content has been increased in crops like Camelina using genes from marine organisms.
54
What are anthocyanins and how are they engineered in tomatoes?
Anthocyanins are antioxidant pigments; transcription factors are introduced to enhance their production, creating black tomatoes.
55
What are edible vaccines and their benefits?
Vaccines expressed in plants like tomatoes or bananas; they're easy to store, administer, and do not require purification.
56
What are environmental concerns with GM crops?
Possible spread of transgenes via pollen or seeds, impacts on wild species, weediness, and biodiversity.
57
How can transgenes spread in the environment?
Through pollen to wild relatives or through seeds dispersed by wind, animals, or humans.
58
What are some food safety concerns about GM plants?
Questions about allergenicity, transgene digestion, labeling, and public acceptance.
59
What is gene editing and how is it different from GM?
Gene editing (e.g., CRISPR/Cas9) precisely modifies DNA without introducing foreign genes and may be non-transgenic after segregation.
60
How does CRISPR/Cas9 work in plants?
A guide RNA directs Cas9 to a target gene, introducing mutations (insertions/deletions) to disrupt gene function.
61
Can CRISPR-edited plants be considered non-GM?
Yes, if the Cas9 transgene is removed in future generations, the plants may be classified as non-transgenic in some regions.
62
Why are fungi useful in biotechnology?
They grow rapidly, can be mass cultivated on cheap substrates, are genetically manipulable, and produce a wide range of products.
63
What were early uses of fungi in industrial microbiology?
Pasteur discovered microbial fermentation (1851), and citric acid production using Aspergillus niger began in 1923.
64
Which industries use fungal biotechnology?
Pharmaceuticals, organic acids, enzymes, alcohols, food, agriculture, bioremediation, and energy production.
65
What are some pharmaceuticals produced by fungi?
Penicillin, cephalosporins, griseofulvin, fusidic acid, ergot alkaloids, statins, cortisone, and 1-ephedrine.
66
Who discovered penicillin and when?
Alexander Fleming discovered the antibacterial effects of Penicillium notatum in 1928.
67
Which fungus produces cephalosporins?
Cephalosporium acremonium.
68
How is cortisone produced with fungi?
Rhizopus arrhizus converts diosgenin from Mexican yams into a cortisone precursor.
69
What are ergot alkaloids and their uses?
Toxic compounds from Claviceps used for migraines, uterine contractions, and as precursors to LSD.
70
What are statins and what do they do?
Drugs from fungi that lower cholesterol; the most widely used pharmaceutical in the West.
71
What is Ganoderma lucidum used for?
A medicinal fungus with bioactive compounds that support immunity and lower cholesterol.
72
Which fungi produce citric acid?
Aspergillus niger, used in food and beverage industries.
73
What are industrial uses of itaconic and gluconic acids?
Itaconic acid improves vinyl polymers; gluconic acid is used in toothpaste.
74
Which alcohols are produced by fungi?
Ethanol (fermentation by yeast) and glycerol (by Saccharomyces cerevisiae).
75
What are uses of glycerol?
Used as solvent, sweetener, antifreeze, in cosmetics, printing, and explosives.
76
Which vitamin-related products do fungi produce?
B vitamins (yeasts), beta-carotene, ergosterol (vitamin D), and riboflavin.
77
What plant growth factor is produced by fungi?
Gibberellic acid from Fusarium moniliforme, used to regulate fruit set and increase yield.
78
What is mycoprotein?
A fungal-based protein food made from Fusarium venenatum, used in meat substitutes like Quorn.
79
What fungi are involved in cheese production?
Cryphonectria parasitica (rennet), Penicillium camemberti, and Penicillium roqueforti for texture and flavor.
80
How are fungi used in biological control?
As agents to suppress pests or pathogens; e.g., Paecilomyces lilacinus targets nematodes.
81
What is Phlebia gigantea used for?
Biocontrol of the forest pathogen Heterobasidium annosum.
82
What are mycorrhizal inoculants?
Fungal spores added to plant roots to enhance nutrient uptake and plant growth.
83
What is bioremediation using fungi?
The use of fungi to detoxify environmental pollutants in soil, water, and air.
84
Which fungi are most studied for bioremediation?
White rot fungi for their lignin-degrading enzyme systems.
85
What is mycofiltration?
Use of fungal-infused fabrics to trap and degrade pollutants on contaminated ground.
86
What are some emerging fungal biotechnologies?
Fungal materials like mycelium bricks, fungal leather, and 'grow-your-own' furniture.
87
How can fungi contribute to sustainability?
Fungal biotech can address 10 of 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals through eco-friendly innovations.
88
What are the key contributions of fungi to biotechnology?
Fungi produce drugs, acids, alcohols, enzymes, vitamins, foods, biopesticides, and eco-materials; they support agriculture, health, and sustainability.

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