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Blood Physiology 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 5 types of WBC normally in circulating blood? Granulocytes vs Agranulocytes

A

Granulocytes:
1) Basophils
2) Neutrophils
3) Eosinophils

Agranulocytes:
4) Lymphocytes
5) Monocytes

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2
Q

Where are WBC produced?

A

In bone marrow. They originate from hematopoietic stem cells, which are multipotent cells capable of developing into various types of blood cells

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3
Q

Describe the structure of basophils

A

= multilobed nuclei
= similar size to neutrophils

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4
Q

Which of the granulocytes are the least phagocytic?

A

Basophils

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5
Q

What substances are found in basophils and what are their functions?

A

1) Histamine: vasodilator

2) Heparin: anticoagulant

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6
Q

What characteristic do basophils share with tissue mast cells?

A

Both contain immunoglobulin E, an antibody that protects against allergens.

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7
Q

What is the most abundant WBC type in dogs, cats and horses

A

Neutrophils

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8
Q

Describe the structure of neutrophils

A

Mature cells = polymorphonuclear leukocytes with 2-5 nuclear segments. Larger than RBC but smaller than monocytes.

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9
Q

Function of neutrophils

A

Combats bacterial infections (phagocytosis)
Involved in early stages of inflammatory response (releases cytokines)

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10
Q

Explain how neutrophils are involved in the early stages of inflammatory response:

A

1) Diapedesis: Neutrophil enters tissue space

2) Chemotaxis:
neutrophils are attracted to inflammatory chemicals at inflammation site

3) Opsonisation:
Microorg. coated with a plasma protein - opsonin = antibody that makes microorg more recognisable to neutrophil

4) Phagocytosis:
Microorg. phagocytosed by neutrophil and degraded in phagosome via lysosomal enzymes released by cytoplasmic granules
(hydrogen peroxide, myeloperoxidase, lysozyme)

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11
Q

Describe the structure of eosinophils

A

Segmented nucleus (2 lobes)

Larger than neutrophils

red granules - blood smear

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12
Q

Function of eosinophils

A

▪ phagocytosis
▪ parasitic invasion & allergic reactions

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13
Q

Describe the structure of monocytes

A

▪ Largest WBC

▪ Polymorphous nucleus

▪ nucleus = round/ pseudo-lobed

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14
Q

Function of monocytes

A

▪ Inflammatory response

▪ Monocyte = macrophage in tissues

▪ Monocytes + macrophages constitute mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS)

▪ clean up cellular debris after an infection/inflammation clears up

▪ process antigens (antigen-presentation) - ingest antigens & present them on cell membranes
to lymphocytes

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15
Q

Differentiate between monocytes and macrophages

A

Monocytes:

i) White blood cells found in the blood.

ii) They circulate and migrate into tissues when needed.

Macrophages:

i) Monocytes become macrophages once they enter tissues.

ii) These cells are long-lived and perform phagocytosis.

iii) are tissue specific:

  • Kupffer cells – liver
  • Microglia – brain
  • Langerhans cells –skin
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16
Q

Structure of Lymphocytes

A

Large round/ oval nucleus found in lymphoid tissues

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17
Q

Types of lymphocytes

A

Regulate adaptive immune system:

▪ T lymphocytes (T cells)
▪ B lymphocytes (B cells)
▪ natural killer (NK) cells

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18
Q

What are the 2 parts of the immune system

A

1) System of ducts + lymph fluid

2) System of lymphoid organs + tissues
* lymph nodes,
* spleen
* thymus
* tonsils
* gut associated lymph tissue (GALT)

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19
Q

Functions of the lymphatic system

A

▪ removal of excess tissue fluid

▪ waste material transport

▪ filtration of lymph

▪ protein transport system

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20
Q

What is lymph?

A

Lymph is formed from the fluid that leaks out of blood capillaries into tissues (called interstitial fluid). It primarily contains lymphocytes.

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21
Q

How is lymph different from plasma?

A

Lymph:
- Water (more)
- Fewer proteins
- Lymphocytes (WBC)
- sugar
- electrolytes

Plasma:
- Water (less)
- Proteins (like albumin, antibodies, clotting factors)
- Nutrients, hormones
- RBC + WBC

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22
Q

Describe lymph circulation

A

1) Excessive Interstitial fluid (leaked plasma) is picked up by lymph capillaries via Blood + osmotic pressure

2) Capillaries form larger vessels

3) One-way valves + body movement propels lymph > heart

4) Lymph > lymph node/s to pick up lymphocytes

5) macrophages in lymph node remove microorg.

6) Lymph > vena cava thus returned to circulation

Thus, lymph originates from plasma and is returned to plasma

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23
Q

What are the 2 classifications of lymphoid organs and examples of each?

A

primary:
▪ thymus
▪ bursa of Fabricius (birds)
▪ Peyer’s patches (small intestine)

secondary:
▪ spleen
▪ lymph nodes
▪ tonsils

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24
Q

Function of thymus

A

produces mature T-cells from precursors sent from the bone marrow - migrate to other lymphoid tissues and the blood. Atrophies as animal matures.

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25
Function of T- cells
▪ programmed to fight specific antigens ▪ produced throughout life of the animal - microscopic clusters of cells remain in the area after atrophy of thymus ▪ stimulates cell-mediated immune response
26
Location and function of Bursa of Fabricius
Only in birds: round sac located above the cloaca. produces mature T-cells from precursors sent from the bone marrow - migrate to other lymphoid tissues and the blood.
27
What are Peyer's patches and what do they do?
= gut associated lymph tissue (GALT) > activate B cells to produce antibodies against antigens in the small intestine.
28
Main functions of secondary lymphoid organs
▪ trap and process antigens and mature lymphocytes that mediate immune responses ▪ enlarge in response to antigenic stimulation
29
Functions of the spleen
> stores RBC: reservoir for blood > makes RBC in foetuses > filters blood + lymph
30
Structure of spleen
> Outside: fibrous CT + smooth m. capsule ▪ trabeculae from capsule go into soft tissue of spleen ▪ smooth m. contract [squeeze blood back into circulation] > Inside: 2 areas 1) white pulp: lymphocytes - immune response 2) red pulp: macrophages, blood vessels, sinuses - filters blood by removing damaged RBC, stores blood and recycles iron from haemoglobin
31
What are lymph nodes?
Filters located along lymphatic vessels. They filter lymph as it travels back to systemic circulation, trapping antigen and foreign materials.
32
Structure of lymph nodes
Cortex: lymph nodules Medulla: tissue macrophages
33
What methods are used to evaluate abnormalities regarding lymph nodes?
Fine Needle Aspirate (FNA) and cytology
34
MALT?
MALT = Mucosa- associated lymphatic tissue = Clusters of lymphoid tissue located near mucosal surfaces: - CALT = Conjunctival... - NALT = Nasal... - GALT = Gut...
35
Role of tonsils in the lymphatic system?
part of the MALT system ▪ at beginning of lymph draining system ▪ nodules of lymphoid tissue that are not covered with a capsule ▪ found in epithelial tissue - pharyngeal region, larynx, urinary, & reproductive tracts ▪destroy foreign material and prevent spread of infection into respiratory and digestive systems
36
Differentiate between the innate and adaptive immune system
Innate: = rapid, non-specific = present at birth = macrophages recognise PAMP = uses physical, chemical, and cellular components/ barriers to protect body Adaptive: = targets specific organs = not present at birth = develops + adapts as animal is exposed to antigens = uses antibodies, memory cells, plasma cells, B lymphocytes, and T lymphocytes
37
What is PAMP
Pathogen associated molecular patterns = PAMP = molecular structures found on pathogens that trigger the innate immune response
38
Differentiate between the 1st and 2nd line of defence of the innate immune system
1st = external innate immunity: - anatomical barriers - skin = keratinized epithelia - Mucous membranes of respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive systems - tears, saliva, nasal discharge - Stomach = acidic 2nd = internal innate immunity: - Inflammation - Fever [elevated body temp.] - Phagocytosis - Opsonization -Antibodies + Complement system - Cytokines - Natural killer cells
39
Briefly summarize the inflammatory response
Pathogen invasion/ tissue damage → chem. release: prostaglandins, leukotrienes, cytokines → Causes arterioles to dilate and venules to constrict → more blood flow and permeability → more WBC can enter and ingest foreign/ cellular debris → tissue heals → inflammation reduced
40
Explain how fever is a 2nd line of defence in the internal innate immune system
Fever = systemic inflammation response: 1) chemical mediators (cytokines + prostaglandins) are carried throughout the body = creates environment that exceeds the optimal temp. for pathogens
41
What is the danger of an excessively high body temp. due to fever?
1) High temp. can denature proteins like enzymes which affects normal cell function. 2) Osmotic pressure changes, causing oedema [when capillary walls become more permeable due to chem. mediators like leukotrienes] 3) Brain damage 4) Organ failure [stress]
42
Explain how phagocytosis is a 2nd line of defence in the internal innate immune system
Phagocytes engulf foreign particles like bacteria and cell/ tissue remnants. Phagocytes = neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells [presents antigens] Phagocytes have many receptor types to recognise many types of org.
43
Explain how Opsonization is a 2nd line of defence in the internal innate immune system
Foreign invaders are coated with a capsule that camouflages their antigens, so the immune system can't recognise them. Opsonins bind to the surface of pathogens, forming a protein coat. Phagocytes have receptors for these opsonins, allowing them to bind and engulf the pathogen. Opsonins = antibodies/ complement proteins
44
Explain how the complement system is involved in the 2nd line of defence in the internal innate immune system
The complement system is a group of plasma proteins (30+) that are mostly *inactive proteolytic enzymes produced in the liver. They are activated in the presence of an antigen/ antibody attached to an antigen. *they are always inactive in plasma NOTE: denoted by C + number e.g. C3b Functions: - Attacks surface membrane of microorg. - enhances capillary permeability - acts as chemotaxin - acts as opsonin to stimulate phagocytosis
45
Explain how cytokines are involved in the 2nd line of defence in the internal innate immune system
1) Cytokines attract immune cells to specific sites 2) act as inhibitor molecules 3) enhance immune process 4) role in haematopoiesis
46
Name 3 types of cytokines
1) Interferons 2) interleukins 3) chemokines
47
Explain how natural killer cells are involved in the immune system
Natural killer cells are a type of lymphocyte that are actually part of both the innate (primarily) and adaptive immune system: Innate > 2nd line of defence: - binds to (infected/ stressed/ tumour) cell and induces apoptosis Adaptive: - NK cells recognise antibody coated cells and destroy them. - NK cells respond to IL-12 produced by macrophages and secrete interferon (INF)- gamma which activates the macrophages to kill phagocytized pathogens - They are capable of memory/ memory-like immune processes
48
How does the Adaptive immune system (3rd line of defence) work?
It targets specific pathogens/ antigens, where only a small part of the antigen is recognised - epitome. It involves memory: pathogens that have infected the organism before is recognised and destroyed before they can cause disease again, which happens quicker than the initial response.
49
What cells are involved in the adaptive immune system?
B-lymphocytes T-lymphocytes Natural killer cells
50
What are the 3 stages of differentiation of B- and T- lymphocytes?
1) Naive cells: have not encountered an antigen 2) Cytotoxic/ effector cells: activated and involved in eliminating a pathogenic antigen 3) Memory cells: Clones of B and T cells that have been activated in an immune response. They stay in lymph nodes or circulate in blood
51
Function of B- lymphocytes (B-cells)
B - cells produce antibodies > immunoglobulins. Each B cell produces 1 antibody type for one antigen: surface receptor fit 1 antigen shape (epitope).
52
Explain the 2 forms that B cells can differentiate into
Plasma cells Memory B- cells
53
Location of B cells
B cells are formed in bone marrow and then migrate to lymph nodes and spleen etc
54
Explain how the formation and differentiation of B cells work
1) B cells originate and mature in bone marrow 2) Inactive B cells migrate to lymph nodes, spleen, etc. 3) In the lymphoid tissue B cells encounter specific antigen and with help from T cells become activated 4) They then differentiate into plasma cells or memory B cells 5) Plasma cells can migrate to bone marrow and continue to make antibodies that circulate in the blood 6) Memory B cells provide long term immunity by reactivating when the same antigen is presented again [they can circulate or remain in lymphoid tissues]
55
Name 5 types of immunoglobulins
IgA IgD IgE IgG IgM
56
What is the largest and what is the smallest immunoglobulins (antibodies)
Largest = IgM Smallest = IgG
57
What is the 1st antibody produced during development?
IgM = produced when animal is 1st exposed to an antigen [newborns] = temporary [gone 2-3 weeks post exposure]
58
Function of IgG
1) Replaces IgM. 2) Long-lasting immunity against bacterial + viral infections 3) Passive immunity to foetus = the only antibody that can cross the placenta Extra: It is the most common. Produced by plasma cells
59
Function and location of Ig A
Protects body surfaces from foreign substances = mucosal surfaces of intestinal tract + lungs
60
Function of IgE
binds to allergens and triggers histamine and heparin release from mast cells + basophils in allergic reactions and also protects against parasitic helminth (worm) infections
61
Function of IgD
Activates basophils + mast cells
62
How does antigen presentation work?
T cells cannot recognise antigens on their own. Fragments of an antigen (epitopes) are processed and presented on the surface of antigen- presenting cells (APCs) like macrophages and dendritic cells. T cells bind to the antigen and become activated. They then proliferate and differentiate into several different subtypes of T cells.
63
Explain the origin and development of different T cell subtypes
1) Haematopoietic stem cells originate in bone marrow 2) These stem cells give rise lymphoid progenitor cells 3) that migrate to the thymus (thus T cells) 4) and become thymocytes (precursor) 5) They mature and multiply in the thymus 6) Mature naive T cells migrate to lymph nodes and spleen 7) They develop a specific antigen receptor on their cell membrane 8) They encounter their 1st specific antigen presented on an APC 9) it becomes activated/ sensitized 10) It differentiates into a specialized subtype
64
What are the specialized subtypes of activated T cells?
1) T helper cells: secrete cytokines 2) Cytotoxic T cells/ effector cells/ killer cells/ killer t cells: attach to antigenic markers on cells and destroy them 3) Regulatory/ suppressor T cells: - Inhibit Helper and Cytotoxic T cell function - prevent B cells from becoming plasma cells 4) Memory T cells
65
What is humoral immunity?
1) Triggered by extracellular pathogens 2) Plasma cells make Ig (antibodies) 3) targets specific antigens for destruction
66
What is cell-mediated immunity
1) Triggered by intracellular pathogens 2) No antibody production 3) T cell attaches to antigen marker on phagocyte surface that have processed the pathogen

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